Ten years of Pittman-Robertson wildlife restoration 1938 to 1948

              rAIUXUH "~SEAItCH IEFUaf:
TEN YEARS OF
PITTMAN-ROBERTSON
WI LOLl FE RESTORATION
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TEN YEARS OF
PITTMAN-ROBERTSON
WILDLIFE RESTORATION
by
ROBERT M. RUTHERFORD, CHIEF
BRANCH OF FEDERAL AID, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
Published by the
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE
Investment Building
Washington 5, D. C.
1949 '
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Subject
THE STORY BEHIND THE ACT ____________________________________________________________ _
WORKING OUT PROGRAM STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES ___ _
ASSENTING TO BECOMING ELIGIBLE TO SHARE IN BENEFITS
EXCISE TAX: ApPROPRIATIONS AND ApPORTIONMEN'rS_
Page
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9
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How THE ACT OPERATES
WORK SELECTION AND EMPHASIS _______ _
RESTORATION ACCOMPLISHMENTS
}'EDERAL RESPONSIBILITlES-STATE COOIWINATION
SPECIES BENEFITTED BY P.-R. PROJECTS
DEER ______________________ _ _______________________ _
ELK __________________ _
ANTELOPE __ _________ ___ _ _______________ _
MOUNTAIN SHEEP ____________________________________ _
MOUNTAIN GOAT ___________________________________________ _
MOOSE ____________________________________________ _
BUFFALO ____________________________________________ _
JAVELIN A ____________ _____ _ ___________________________________________ _
BEAR _____ ______________ _ _________ . _______ .... . __________ _
WATERFOWL _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ _
BOBWHITE QUAIL __________________ _ ____________________________ . _____ ....... _____ . ____ _
SCALED, MOUNTAIN, VALLEY AND GAMBEL'S QUAIL
RING-NECKED PHEASANT __ . ______________ . _____ .. ______ .___ _ __________________________________ _
WILD TURKEY _______________ _____________________ _ _____________________________ _
RUFFED GROUSE ________ ______________________ _ ______________________________________________ _
PRAIRIE GROUSE _______________________________ ________________ _ ____________ • ________ . _____ _
SAGE GROUSE __________________ _____ _ __________________________________________________________ _
HUNGARIAN P ARTRIDG E _____________________________________________ _
CHUKAR PARTRIDGE __________________________________ _
DOVES ______________________________ ___ ____________ _ __________________________________________________________ _
CLAPPER RAIL _____________ _ _________________________________________________________ _
WOODCOCK _____________________________________ _
COTTONTAIL RABBIT _ _ ___________ _ _____________ _ ______________________________________________ _
SQUIRRELS _____________________________________________________________ _
VARYING HARE ____ __________ _______ _ ________________________________ _
RACCOON ____________ _ ______________________________________________________________ _
MUSKRAT ________________ _ _________________________________________________________ _
BEAVER __________________ _ ______________________________________________________________ _
MARTEN ________________________ ________________________________________________ _ _____________ _
PREDATORS ___________________________________________________________________________________________ _
CONTRIBUTIONS OF TECHNICA(,Ly-TRAINED PERSONNEL ____________________________ _
PUBLICATIONS
COOPERATION BETWEEN THE STATES AND FEDERAL AGENCIES
ApPENDIX
HUNTING LICENSE SALES BY STATES ____________________________________________________ _
DATES OF STATES' ASSENT ACTS TO THE PITTMAN-RoBERTSON ACT
SUMMARY OF RECEIPTS, ApPROPRIATIONS AND ApPORTIONMENTS
ApPORTIONMENT OF FUNDS, STATES' CONTRIBUTIONS, AND GRAND TOTAL __
FINANCIAL SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS FOR FEDERAL AID IN WILDLIFE
RESTORATION PROGRAM ________________________________________________________________________ _
NET OBLIGATIONS BY TYPES OF PROJECTS ______________________________________________ _
SUMMARY OF LANDS ACQUIRED AND BEING ACQUIRED BY STATES _________ _
SUMMARY OF LANDS ApPROVED FOR PURCHASE ____________ . __ . __ ._. ____ . ____ . __ .. MAMMALS TRAPPED AND TRANSPLANTED ____ . ___ . ____ . _____________ . __________ _
BIRDS TRANSPLANTED ____________________ _ __________________________________________________________ _
WILDLIFE SPECIES INVESTIGATED BY STATES _______ _ ____________________ _
FEDERAL AID IN WILDLIFE RES'l'ORA'rION PROJ ECTS ApPROVf;D FISCAL
YEARS 1939-48 AND THE FUNDS INVOLVED ______________________________ _
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INTRODUCTION
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Every time an American hunter buys a gun or ammunition he chips
in to improve his sport. This has been g'oing on since July 1, 1938,
when the excise tax on sporting arms and ammunition, first levied in
1932, was channeled over by the Oongress to pay for work performed
under the Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration
Act.
The millions of Americans who go afield each year in pursuit of
their favorite game finance wildlife restoration action by buying
arms and ammunition and by purchasing hunting licenses that provide
State matching money. But why is this necessary? Have these in­vestments
in the wildlife factory improved management and stepped
up production t The multitude of stockholders in this restoration
business are entitled to an accounting. This report covers the first
decade of operations.
Double-fronted assaults on a fast-rising scale of intensity squeezed
wildlife during these ten years. State hunting license sales soared
from 6,898,847 in 1938, to 12,066,763 in 1947. (See Table I in appen­dix,
for annual sales.) At the same time, an unprecedented expansion
in crop production erased much wildlife food and cover, so essential to
continued high populations of game birds and mammals.
Skyrocketing hunting license sales and shrinking living quarters
for game species made it imperative that the State game departments
reverse the tide of habitat loss by financing replacement work. Farm
lands, which produce more than 75 percent of the annual game
harvest, had to be made more productive by habitat improvements
compatible with good farm management. There was a pressing need
for public lands, particularly those controlled by the State game and
fish departments, being brought into maximum wildlife production.
Critical winter ranges for big game, fast dwindling waterfowl
marshes, and other important game areas had to be acquired for these
purposes. Collecting accurate information on wildlife popUlations and
trends became a necessity. The margin of allowable error on what the
proper harvest should be had declined in proportion to the vast ex­pansion
of the hunting army. Administrators were compelled to
expand or contract hunting pressure according to the size of the game
population and the ability of the lands to support them. But the man­agement
that any sensible cattle rancher would apply to his herds
was not enough. Wildlife seed stock had to be brought into suitable
but vacant ranges to spread game species and help cushhn the impact
of greater gun pressure.
Funds coming to the States from Pittman-Robertson appropria­tions
have been a potent aid in financing performance of varying
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restoration work, to insure large-scale population increases. This in­come
also paid for the brains and brawn to gather facts for sctting
sound seasons and bag limits.
THE STORY BEHIND THE ACT
The drought of the early thirties brought home the stark reality
that waterfowl were in a bad way. Buying and developing several
million acres of land for duck and goose refuges by the Federal Gov­ernment
helped ease their plight. This demonstrated what could be
done through proper financing. The 8tates had an important stake
in perpetuating an abundant sHpply of waterfowl, and sole respon­sibility
for npland wildlife. Unfortunately, they lacked funds to
finance the kind of wildlife restoration job that was llC'eded.
Additional attpntion was focnspcl on the problem whpn Prpsident
Roosevelt called the first North Ameri('an 'Wildlife Conference to meet
in February, 1936 at Washington, D. C. The large attendance at the
('onference and the topics diseussl'd (Iisdosed a deep-rooted realiza­tion
of the pressing need for action to ('onserve and restore habitat
and preserve dwindling wildlife numbprs. At the same time, the COll­gress
was in the process of abolishing eertain excise taxes, including
the one on sporting arms and ammunition.
Far-sighted conservationists in and out of the Congress conceived
the idea of having the excise tax on sporting arms and ammunition
continued, with proceeds going to the 8tates to pay for needed wild­life
restoration. Such a proposal was prescnted to the International
Association of Game, Fish and Conservation Commi&<;ioners, which
represents all the State game departments, at their annual meeting in
1936. The Association gave hearty endorsement to the proposal. With
that backing, a bill was drafted and sponsored in the Congress b~'
former Senator Key Pittman of Neyada, and Senator (then Repre­sentative)
A. Willis Robertson of Virginia. So ably presented and
supported was the bill that it passed the Congress without opposition,
and was approYCd by the President on September 2, Hl37. The new
act was to take effect July 1, 1938. Its administration was placed in
the Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Biologieal Survey where
it remained until June 30, 1940, when the Bureau of Biological Sur­vey
and the Bureau of Fisheries wPre merged to form the Fish and
'Wildlife Service, the agency which now administers the act. Under
the terms of the act, project costs are borne initially by the State ganH'
departnH'nts, after which rpimbursement is made from Federal funds
for the Federal pro-rata share, whieh cannot exceed 75 pereent of
the eost of the project. Eaeh 8tate, therefore, is required to eOI1-
tribute 25 percent or more of projPct costs from its own funds.
To handle the Federal Government's administrative end of the pro­gram,
a new Division of Ff'deral Aid in Wildlife Restoration was set
up in the old Bureau of Biologieal Survey. The first chief of this
Division, appointed on .July 2, 1938, was Albert M. Day, now Direetor
of the Fish and Wildlife Serviee.
WORKING OUT PROGRAM STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES
Like other laws, the Pittman-Robertson Act had numerous features
that required interpretation. This was particularly true of such a far­reaching
program involving the Federal Government and 48 States.
To avoid confusion, it was essential to have mutual understanding of
what activities were and were not approvable.
To accomplish this, representatives of the Federal agency first
lIlet with heads of the State game departments in regional meetings
throughout the country, shortly after the passage of the act in 1937.
Out of these meetings came understanding on some points and ques­tions
on others that had to be referred to Federal legal and fiscal
authorities for decision. Following the first ronnd of meetings, a
tentative policy and procedure manual and required rules and regu­lations
were drafted. This tentative set-up was reviewed by the State
officials during the course of the North American Wildlife Conference
at Baltimore, early in 1938. That review brought to light the need
for changes in coverage. The finishing touches on what would consti­tute
approvable activities and sound operational procedures was
agreed to when the State representatives met at Asheville, North
Carolina, in June, 1938, for the annual meeting of the International
Association of Game, Fish and Conservation Commissioners.
The preliminary study and action by I3tate and Federal officials
has been outlined here to show that this cooperative wildlife restora­tion
program, from the beginning, has been founded on mutual under­standing
and agreement. The democratic rather than bureaucratic
approach has been used. In consequence, when the first money became
available for program operations on July I, 1938, there was a meet­ing
of minds about the character of the work that could be conducted.
In the intervening years, modifications in work emphasis have neces­sitated
some changes in original concepts. In spite of this, however, the
contents of the originally adopted Federal Aid Policy and Procedure
Manual remain essentially the same. The few changes made from
time to time have been worked out in concert with the Pittman-Robert­son
Committee of the International Association of Game, Fish and
Conservation Commissioners, rpprpsenting all of the State game de­partments.
Procedural problpms are dis('ussed and ironed out prompt­ly,
so disagreements never get the chance to grow to proportions where
they can stimulate acrimonious debate, or stifle progress.
ASSENTING TO BECOME ELIGIBLE TO SHARE IN
P.-R. BENEFITS
The Pittman-Robertson Act requires the States to assent to its
provisions. It also calls for passag·e of laws by the States, for the
conservation of wildlife, which shall include a prohibition against
diversion of receipts from sales of hunting licenses for any other
purposes than the operation of the State fish and game departments.
Tn a few instances, State legislatures were reluctant to pass assenting
legislation promptly because they were misinformed about the true
purpose of this cooperative program. Then, too, diverting hunting
license receipts to non-wildlife activities had been a profitable pastime
in some States. Nevertheless, the growing number of States that met
D
conditions of the law and were sharing in its advantages to their
entire satisfaction encouraged the slow-acting States to make tl.C ...
selves eligible.
Kansas was the first State to pass legislation assenting to the terms
of the Act. This was done on March 4, 1938. Similar actIOn was soon
taken by several other States so that by July 1, 1938, when the pro­gram
started, seven more States were eligible to participate.
In the first year of the program, an additional 32 States joined the
original eight. By 1943, 47 of the States were active participants.
Ironically, Nevada, whose senior Senator co-authored the legislation,
was the last State to become eligible. Until 1947, that State lacked
centralized wildlife control, as required by the Pittman-Robertson
Act. Each county had a separate wildlife agency. On March 20, 1947,
the State Legislature established a single game and fish department,
and Nevada began sharing in benefits of the Act on July 1, of that
year. (See Table II in appendix for dates of State assent acts to the
Pittman-Robertson Act.)
On August 18, 1941, the Pittman-Robertson Act was amended to
permit Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands to receive
annual allotments of funds. This amendment leaves determination of
the amounts to be granted to the Secretary of the Interior, but limits
Alaska to $25,000 and the other three to $10,000 each.
EXCISE TAX: APPROPRIATIONS AND APPORTIONMENTS
Between July 1, 1938, and ,June 30, 1948, a total of $48,175,431 was
realized from the excise tax on sporting arms and ammunition. The
Congress appropriated $23,431,274 to finance the 75-percent Federal
share of the cost of this work, during the first ten years of program
operations. Collections made during the tenth year ($11,276,687)
were appropriated in their entirety, to defray program costs during
the eleventh year, beginning July 1, 1948. (See Table III for appor­tionment
of funds, State contributions, and the grand total available
for projects, through June 30, 1948, and Table IV for summary of
excise tax receipts, appropriations and apportionments for the ten­year
period.)
Due to appropriations under-running collections, especially during
the war years, a reserve accumulated in the special fund, amounting
to $13,467,469. This is available for appropriation at a later date,
when the Congress decides it is needed by the States.
Annual appropriations are divided among the States, using the
ratio of land area and the number of paid hunting license holders in
each, to determine their shares. In addition, no State may reeeive more
than five percent, nor less than one-half of one percent, of the total
apportioned to all States.
HOW THE ACT OPERATES
When the shares of annual appropriations are credited to the Statt>s
in the lTnited States Treasury, the game and fish departments may
proceed to obligate these funds. They select the work and submit proj_
ect proposals to the Fish and Wildlife Service for approval. The
10
Service, acting for the Secretary of the Interior, reviews the objectives
and plans of the projects to see that they conform with requirements
of the Act, and are sound in character and design.
When approved, the State game and fish departments proceed with
the work. All project personnel are employed by the States. All
eqnipment and lands bought with the help of these funds become the
property of the States. 'rhe initial expenditures are paid with State
funds. Periodic and final reimbursement claims are paid by the Fed­eral
Government on the basis of 75 percent of the actual costs. Thus,
when completed, the projects cost the States ~5 percent from theie
departmental funds. The remaining 75 percent is paid from Pittman­Robertson
funds.
The Act provides for wildlife restoration by the acquisition of lands
and waters, their development, and the conduct of investigations into
problems of wildlife management. Projects dt'signed to benefit fish
are not approvable. On July 24, 1946, an amendment was passed
which permits expenditure of as much as 25 percent of each State's
share for maintenance of completed projects.
The States are allowed two years in which to obligate their annual
apportionments. If they fail to do this the sums of money left over
revert to the Fish and Wildlife Service and are expended in financing
Service operations under provisions of the Migratory Bird Conserva­tion
Act. (See Table V for tabulation of apportionments, reversions,
project obligations and unobligated balances by States.)
WORK SELECTION AND EMPHASIS
There are no restrictions on State investment of this money as long
as the work selected comes within the framework of the Act. Each
State has its own peculiar problems to solve. Some have devoted most
of their allotments to the acquisition of lands to be used for refuges,
public shooting grounds, and management units. Others are stressing
the development of lands by planting food and cover, fencing, posting,
and construction of water impounding structures. Still others em­phasize
surveys and investigations of their wildlife management prob­lems,
such as determining the current status of game populations.
Such information i3 basic to the setting of sound seasons and bag
limits. Since the amendment of July 24, 1946, was passed permitting
States to use this money for maintenance of completed projects, needed
reconditioning of structures and other improvements on previously
developed project areas has been financed. (See Table VI for a listing
of net obligations by types of projects, and the percentage of funds
devoted to them.)
Ten years ago, most State wildlife programs consisted almost en­tirely
of law enforcement, game bird stocking, and predator control.
The majority of sportsmen had been sold on these activities as pro­ducers
of the highest returns for them. But there were questions in
the minds of many State game administrators and more observing
nimrods, about the real dividends from investments in large-scale
bird stocking and high-powered predator control campaigns (par­ticularly
those featuring bounty payments). Technically trained wild­life
workers were hired, with the help of Pittman-Hobertson funds, to
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get the facts. They soon proved that widespread and indiscril1lbate
plantings of game birds were not paying their way. This led to a
deeline in pen-reared bird releases and increased empha.<;is on habitat
improvement. It is universally agreed now that the only excuse for
this kind of stocking is to introduce new species or restore birds to
suitable habitats from which they have been cleaned out. High pro­duction
costs and low survivals would bankrupt a game department
if it tried to stock sufficient birds on a large enough scale to meet
hunting demands.
Studies have shown that State-wide predator control programs
rarely can be justified. The needs for this kind of work usually are
local. With farm game in particular, predation does not makc serious
inroads if wildlife is well established and has properly located food
and cover. On the other hand, coyote control is often necessary to
permit antelope remnants to build up or to pave the way for the safe
reintroduction of these animals into presently vacant but suitable
ranges. The point is that the real need for this kind of work should be
determined by field studies.
Investigations have diselosed the futility of trying to maintain
excess popUlations of big-game animals by artificial feeding. This has
led to population counts and forage utilization studies a,'! a routine
preliminary to the setting of seasons and bag limits. The objective is
a very sensible one: keep these animals in balance with carrying
eapacities of the ranges thpy oceupy. Tn the W('st, partieularly, bio­logical
studies have pointed to the need for aequiring willtl'r ranges,
especially for deer and plk. Much land of this eharacter has been
bought to date. .
Instead of laying out their Pittman-Robertson ea.<;h to build biggpr
and better game farms, the Stat!'s have swung owr to improving wild­life
living" quarters on the land. Tlw ('stablishnwnt of fipl(l borders
featuring perennial Ipgullles such as serieea and bieolor It'spedpzas j
creation of living fences through plantings of multiflora rose j plant­ing
of coverts of conifers, hardwoods, and foo(l bearing shrubs; and
the fencing of parts of farms or strips of uplands bordering farm
ponds, are providing food, l1Psting and eseape cover for farmland
wildlife. This work is not spectacular but it strengthens nature's
physical condition so she will prodlwe 1Il0re abundantly. It is a
heartening improvement over those parlier feathered shots in the arm,
which at best afforded only temporary relief.
RESTORATION ACCOMPLISHMENTS
During the 10 years ('overed by this report, ;)8 States a('quirNl
nearly 900,000 acres of land. The aVl'rage plm·hasc price was $7.28 an
acre. (See Table VII for a(~rpag('s aeqnired and being acquired by
the States and Table V III for a summary of acquisitions by fistal
years.)
Developmental measures have been extremely yaried. Many dams,
dikes, and water diversion structures, as well as service roads and
buildings, were constructed. Millions of trees and shrub seedlings
were planted. Several thousand aeres of food and nesting eover were
seeded. Hefuge boundary fencing and posting totaled thousands of
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miles. Live trapping and transplanting of birds and mammals in­cluded
29 species. Restocking suitable but vacant ranges has been
given high priority in many States. Included in this splendid work
has been the designing of traps and devising of successful trapping
methods. (See Tables IX and X for numbers of mammals and birds
trapped and transplanted by the States.)
The availability of Pittman-Robertson funds has enabled the States
to expand their activities to include improvements to benefit water­fowl.
Many excellent areas have been bought and developed. During
the first ten years of this program, 23 percent of the money allotted to
thc States was invested in the purchase and development of lands, and
in surveys and investigations to help ducks and geese.
Land acquisition and developmental work have one feature in com­mon:
although primary benefits for individual species arc emphasized,
important secondary advantages accrue to other species. Quail devel­opmental
work, for example, can not be carried out without helping
cottontail rabbits. Waterfowl improvement usually creates fine musk­rat
habitat, with substantial dividends coming from the harvest of
these fur animals. Game birds and mammals also flourish in the
included uplands bordering such marshy spreads.
While all Pittman-Hobertson projects must aid wildlife primarily,
improving conditions for ducks and geese frequently create excellent
fishing opportunities. Lands retired for wildlife purposes contribute
to moisture conservation and stop soil erosion. Recommended soil con­servation
practices go hand-in-hand with good wildlife man'agement.
The aims of both are so closely interwoven that 27 States now have
wildlife habitat improvement projects operating in cooperation with
soil conservation districts.
Prominently woven into the cloth of Pittman-Robertson achieve­ments
are the study threads. These surveys and investigations have
been undertaken to answer the multitude of management problems
confronting State game administrators. These include such things as
the devising and testing of new management methods, the objective
weighing of accomplishments on the ground, and the gathering of
facts and figures so that sound recommendations for open seasons and
bag limits can be made. Nearly all game species and many furbearers
have been the subjects of these studies. (See Table XI for a listing of
the species investigated by the States.)
The 1946 amendmt'nt to the Act permits the States to use part of
their annual apportionments for the maintenance of completed proj­ects.
This financial assistance was badly necded to insure that acquired
and developed refuges and management areas would produce to the
limit of their potentialities. Maintenance projects have been under­taken
to repair structures, replace signs, reseed food patches and re­plant
trees and shrubs. (See Table XII for a listing by States of all
projects approved during the lO-year period.)
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FEDERAL RESPONSIBILITIES - STATE COORDINATION
The Fish and Wildlife Service is responsible for administering the
I<\>deral portion of this cooperative wildlife restoration program.
This calls for determining whether projects self'ctedl and submitted by
the States are approvable under the law, whether costs of such proj­ed.
s are reasonable, and whether reimbursement claims for completed
work conform with Federal-State projed. contracts. lTnfot·tunately,
the substantiality of projects tkaling with the purchase of lands,
their development, and the conduct of rpspareh into the problptm; of
wildlife management ean not be determined merely by reviewing
paper submissions. Satisfying thp rf'qnirPtlwtlts of law ealls for field
investigations by tren who are eompetent to perform such work.
When this cooperative program began, very few States had engaged
in buying lands, in performing improvl'llwnt work on sueh lands, or
in eonduding wildlife management resNtreh. Over the years the Fish
and Wildlife Service had assf'mbled a staff of skilled land appraisers.
Depending upon the problem at hand, these men eould eruise timber,
appraise the worth of buildings, translate crop production into real
worth per acre for agrieultural lands, determine the livestock earry­ing
capacity of grazin;.t lands and from that fignt'e tlleir cash value,
and evaluate marshlands from the fur erops or other income pro­duced.
To help the many States in need of land-valuation assistance,
a substantial part of the administrative funds available to the Fish
and Wildlife Service has bepn pxpended in making detailpd lanel ap­praisals
in propospd projeet ar('as.
Proposals for the impoundment of water to bpnefit dueks and geese
involve biologieal and l'nginepring problems in addition to the bnyin!!
of neeessary lands. Through the development of millions of acres of
waterfowl habitat, the Serviep trainpd a group of highly skilled marsh
biologists. Thpse tlwn have bppn made available to the Statps for thp
investigation of potential restoration sites. The Serviee pprformed the
pilot work on designing and installing earthen dikPs and dams for
impounding water on the national systpm of waterfowl rt'fuges it ad­ministers.
There is a scarcity of engineers who are experil'nced in this
economieal type of watpr impoundment and who are fully aware of
the dangers inhert'nt in inaccurate water availability conclusions and
faulty constrnction. To assist the States needing help on sueh devel­opmental
work, the Service has supplied enginperillg assistance wlwn­ever
requested, which has been frequent.
Tht' States have invpsted a substantial part of tht'ir Pittman-Robert­son
funds on wildlife surveys and investigations. As a serviee to them,
the Fish and Wildlife Service abstracts signifieant information eon­tained
in quarterly progress reports and publishes it in the Pittman­Robertson
Quarterly. This information is highly vaillable to project
workers stationed at fipld points where rpfprence library facilities are
not available. It also tends to prevent duplication of effort and en­courages
project workers in various States to corr(>spond with eaeh
other. This eXl,hange of information is a quick way of spreading
knowledge of improved wildlife management techllies.
F'iseal rpquirPlllPnts of the Fedpral Governmpnt ('all for approval
of State reimbursl'ment requests by bonded eertifying' offil'prs. This
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in turn requires that claims for the Federal share of expenditures
made by the States on approved projects be audited. It also makes it
necessary to audit project accounts and records in the State capitals.
A group of qualified auditors has been employed to perform these
necessary accounting tasks in cooperation with the fiscal branches of
the States.
The law provides that as much as eight percent of each annual
appropriation may be deducted to finance the work responsibilities
of the Fish and Wildlife Service on the Pittman-Robertson program.
The major part of the f>xpenditures at the Federal end have been de­voted
to serving the States beyond the strict requirements of the law.
The States wanted the help, and by providing it the Service has pro­moted
economy, efficiency, and progress along all lines of action.
After the Pittman-Robertson program got under way, it became
obvious that the weak link in the operational chain in many of the
States was the lack of someone to plan new work and to supervise that
in progress. State game administrators in most States could not
devote enough time to program activities and there was no one in their
organizations to whom that responsibility could be assigned. This
unsatisfactory state of affairs led to the designing of the coordination
project.
The duties of prog~am coordinators in the States include planning,
directing, and supervising all restoration work financed through Pitt­man-
Robertson project~. This employee administers the program and
is responsible for its integration with the over-all programs of the
State game department. Contributions from coordination projects
are extremely important in the smooth and effective operation of this
wildlife restoration work. Coordinators relieve game department
heads of responsibility for program details. They insure a well-bal­anced
and productive program operated on a current fiscal basis. In
many instances these employees conduct land-purchase negotiations
and perform some devt'lopmental or rt'search work as part of their
normal responsibilities. Then too, this project is used at times to
finance the cost of employing engineers to make reconnaissance sur­veys
of areas that appear to have biological promise for waterfowl
restoration. Such studies disclose whether adequate water supplies are
available and whether ground conditions favor desired development
at reasonable costs. Where lands are being purchased in numerous
places and from many owners, it often has been found expedient to
attach personnel who conduct the negotiations to coordination proj­ects.
This gets away from maintaining involved cost-distribution
records for each project on which office or field work is performed,
and enables these State workers to spend full time on the land-buying
work for which they were hired.
Coordination projects were in operation in 31 States on June 30,
1948. This post in the State departments has provided a fertile train­ing
ground for advancement to higher administrative responsibilities.
Of the seven former Pittman-Robertson workers who were filling the
top positions in State fish and game department organizations on June
30, 1948, five were Federal Aid coordinators when the promotions
occurred.
SPECIES BENEFITTED BY P.-R. PROJECTS
Practically every game and fur species has received attention under
one or more phases of the program. Typical examples of State actions
have been selected and are contained in the following coverage, by
species.
Deer
The three species of deer - white-tails, black-tails, and mule­comprise
the most important big-game group in the country. As such,
they have been accorded major attention under the Pittman-Robertson
program.
These animals received primary benefits from 70 land acquisition
projects, covering 64 areas in 19 states. These have involved the pur­chasing
or long-term leasing of 636,000 acres of land. These dcer
areas vary in nature and use, but fall into two general categories.
Those in the East usually comprise year-round habitat for white­tailed
deer and are set up as refuges, or as in Pennsylvania, as ad.di­tions
to the State Game Land.s, open to hunting (-'xcept on specified
refuges. Much of the limd acquired in the West has been purchased
to provide wintering range for mule and black-tailed deer.
A good example of an eastern project is the Catoosa Game Manage­ment
Area acquired by Tennessee, comprising 60,000 acres in Cumber­land
and Morgan Counties. The Tehama Winter Deer Range in
Tehama County, California, is a good illustration of the western type.
This eventually will contain over 114,000 acres, and will benefit
Columbian black-tailed deer. A total of 33,972 acres has been bought
or is in process of acquisition in this purchase unit. Cattle grazing
was reduced to 50 percent
of prior usage on State­owned
lands, and sheep
grazing has been discon­tinued.
Required fencing
was constructed nnder a
developnkntal project.
Texas has been most ac­tive
in live-trapping and
transplanting white - tails,
having moved 9,186 head.
Additional animals have
Figure I. During the 19<47-<48
trapping season, the Telas Game,
Fish, and Oyster Comission fur­nished
Georgia with 150 white­tails.
This truck load has just
completed a I,OOO-mile trip and
the deer are about to be released
on suitable but vacant Georgia
deer range. The animals were
trapped on the Fish and Wildlife
Service's Aransas National Wild­life
Refuge. Photo by Georgia
Game and Fish Comminion.
16
been made available to Oklahoma and certain eastern states, for seed
stock purposes (Figure 1). This out-of-state aid in helping solve deer
deficiency problems has included the shipping of 25 Texas white-tails
to the Virgin Islands. They were trucked to Miami, Florida, and then
transported by airplane the remaining 1.100 miles to the Virgin Is­lands.
Arkansas has caught and moved 1,909 white-tails. Montana has
live-trapped and transplanted 1,:333 deer, of which 262 were white-tails
and 1,071 mule deer. Restocking unoccupied but suitable range by
purchase and release of white-tailed d('er had b('en emphasized in
eertain eastern and southern States. Virginia pro~nred and released a
total of 1,373 deer, betw('cn 19:1!) and ID44. This stocking program
was very successful. Son.:e of the counties where these deer were re­leased
have already been opened to hunting for Hhort periods to permit
the harvesting of surplus bucks.
Opening up dense stands of timber to stimnlate growth of food
plants on the forest floor is a re('('nt addition b program activities.
Outstanding is Pennsylvania's projel't involving a ('utting progra:n in
second-growth timber on its extensive game land holdings. \Vith inten­sive
fire protection, large scopes of cut-over timcer land have recov­ered,
and now support dense stands of second growth which no longer
provide food for deer. Snrh forests must be opened if the carrying
capacity for more than a remnant of recNlt herds is to be maintained.
Cutting operations underway in Pennsylvania are aimed at removing
inferior trees. The deer benefit, and the timber removed is in accord­ance
with sound woodland management.
Several of the southt'a"tern "tates have set asi(le large blocks of
woodlands as deer refug'('s in which the animals will be allowed to in­crease
for restocking purpos('s or the l-iurplus will be permitted to
spread out into adjacent open art'as. To make thel-ie as productive as
possible for deer, the boundaries have been posted and food patches
established on old clearings and trails.
Methods of censusing deer have teen gr('atly improved through the
efforts of Pittman-Robertson workers. In 'rexas, a successful cruise
census and quadrant count has been developed on the Edwards
Plateau. This has made it possible for one man to sample representa­tive
areas and come out with a rt,liable estimate of total population.
Similar types of cruise census were devised and applied on Pittman­Robertson
projects in Oklahoma and Minnesota. The greatest im­provement
in counting deer and many other species has been made
possible by using airplanes. This was pioneered in i-Jorth Dakota, but
has since been adopted by about half of the States for deer population
Htudies.
Browse studips in a nmuerr of statps have provided yardsticks for
quickly appraising' deer cont('ntration areas by examining key browse
species as indicators of intenl-iity of deer use. These surveys, plus
nutritional and preference l-itudips al-isembled through Pittman-Robert­son
projects, enable the game departments to establish season and bag
limits, so as to keep numbers within the ('arrying' capacities of the
ranges. Starvation lossps can be prt'tiidt'd in time to avoid them
(Figure 2). Expt'rilllents have bet'n (·ondlleted in 'Wisconsin and
Michigan to determine ('an-ying' capaeity of deer Y Lrtis, and Wiscon-
17
Figure 2. Deer browse line in Itasca State Park, Minnesota. Field investigations and
timely herd reduction can prevent forage being depleted to this starvation stage. Photo
by Minnesota Department of Conservation.
sin has n~ade appraisals of drrr damag-r to forest reproduction. Palat­ability
ratings of plant spe('ies wpre determined in South Dakota by
eOlllparing pereentages available as determined by range surveys with
pereentages found in stomaeh analyses. Bone marrow analyses to
determine degree of malnutrition in deer, have teen made in New
York, Wisconsin, and South Dakota. North Carolina has used environ­mental
studirs as a basis for deer management. Moreover, effeets of
weather on deer kill have been studied in New York, Vel'lllont. and
Maine. Oregon, Texas, Alabama, Nt'w York, Maint', alld Vermont havt'
studipd depr-damage eontrol by use of t'ledrie fenees, 1'('p('l1ents. and
buffer erops. Body and antlt'r lIlt'aSllrements in V t'rmout showed age
to bt' thr most important fador gowI'ning size and weight and Colo­rado
has devisrd a method of eonvt'rting body mt'aSllrements of mule
deer into wright figures, thus {'liminating the necessity of removin~
earcasses from ears. This type of data is important in determining
physieal eondition of the herd. Winter mortality surveys have been
eonducted annually in the Adirondaek region of New York, and food
habits studies have Ceen made in North Carolina, Wisconsin, South
Dakota, and many other States.
Studies of supplemental feeding of mule deer in winter concentra­tion
areas in Utah and Colorado diselosed that such programs were
detrinH'ntal rather than benefieial. It wa.'> concluded that heavier
hunting prrssure to remove surplus deer threatened by malnutrition
was the only practieal method of avoiding over-populations. The
abandonment of artificial feeding in Colorado has saved that Statr
almost $50,000 per year. Annual population inventories and rang'e
utilization studies have been substituted. Deer now are managed on
a herd-basis, with hunting pressure being expanded or eon traded to
keep the animals within the earrying capacities of their winter ranges.
Bitter and inconclusive wranglfs as to whether defr herds should ue
incrfased or reduced are now being solved over the fntire range of
these animals by Pittman-Robertson field studies, and slItSl"ljUl"nt
management recommendations. Facts have replaced opinions. Actions
are in keeping with the basic principles of good livestl)('k management,
partienlarly in the \Vest. In some of the millwestern and eastern
18
Figure 3. Some of Montana's Sun River elk hord on the winter range being acquired
for them. Photo by R. F. Cooney, Montana Fish and Game Commission.
stat.('s, how('vl'r, putli(~ ('du~atioll has not progressed to the stage where
intelligent managellll'nt ('an be applied to deer. Deer winter yard
forage conditions continue to dpt.priorate and periodic heavy starva­tion
losses occur. Nevertheless, Pittman-Robertson technicians have
developpd pradical and inl'xpPllsive n1l'thods for getting the facts.
The prescription can te written and treatment started whenever
public acceptance permits aetion.
Elk
The Irajor problpJl1 in rlk manag-rll1l'llt is the shortage of winter
range. To rl'lieve this condition six of the \V l'stprn States have under­taken
the purchase of 1 U wintering areas., Montana's elk winter range
19
• -I
< ,
. < . "1 ,
,
.,~' ;
~ It' 1.
Figure 4. All big-game animals transplanted on Pittman-Robertson projects are OM­tagged.
Additional Wyoming elk are lured into corrals and livestock tags are attached
to their ears. Hunter and other kills then furnish information on extent of migrations
and life spans. Montana also tags new-born elk on calving grounds. Photo by James E.
Gra5Se, Wyoming Game and Fish Commission.
pnrehase progra:n at the headwatprs of the Sun River is t.'1pieal.
By eareful management, the State has built up the Sun River herd to
:3,000. This is the second largest concentration in the State, being
exeeeded only by the Gallatin herd which summers in Yellowstone
National Parle The Sun River elk were causing severe damage to
ranches. The Montana Fish and Game Commission had two choices:
the winter range could be expanded or the elk population reduced.
The State chose to buy the ranches. The purchase area contains 65,280
lwrps of privately-owned lanels, of which 11,775 acres have been ac­quired.
(Figure:3.)
·Wyoming has liw-trapped and transplanted 929 elk, and leads in
this activity (Figure 4). Idaho obtained 50 l>lk from Wyoming, to get
these animals baek onto Yarant but hereditary range. Elk refug'es
have been established by several States, and developments eonsist of
posting, fencing out domestie stock, and range revegetation where
ne(~e&"ary.
Salting summer ranges, as eondueted b.'1 Idaho and Montana, has
proved effective in prolonging their use by rlk. Animals are thus
p}1C'ouraged to drlay thrir fall mig'rations to winter ranges, and go
back to the summer ranges earlier in the spring. Since winter range
is the population bottleneck, successful enticements to keep elk at
higher elevations until they are aetually forred out by winter snows,
and to get thcm to return as qnit'kly as possible, is first-class manage­llH'nt.
In the roadlrss cal'k <'oulltr.'1, airplanrs are used for dropping
the 50-pound blo('ks of livrstol'k salt. 'rhis is ehraprr and makes for
better distribution than would be the ease if pa('k animals were used.
:!o
Rex-and-age dassifieations of elk have been made in South Dakota,
Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah. Sueh information
is gathered to learn the reproductive success of individual herds and
whether the ratio of cows to bulls is in proper balance. This data,
along with population counts and the degree of forage utilization on
the ranges, makes it possible for the game departments to intelligently
build up, maintain, or reduce the herds. When ranges become over­stocked,
western Statt's do not hesitate to permit the harvesting of
surplus cow elk.
Treating each herd and the range it occupies as a separate prob­lem,
is in striking contrast with former State-wide management. The
ehange-over in operating procedure was made possible by the avail­ability
of Pittman-Robertson funds to t'mploy trained men to go out
and gather the facts. That these workers had to devise new methods
and procedures to do the job is more to their eredit. The task of taking
inventory, for example, has been simplified and speeded up by using
airplanes.
Antelope
One of the outstanding accomplishments of the Pittman-Robertson
Figure 5. Metal post and rope-netting antelope trap. Stakes and cables provide
needed support and eliminat. time-consuming post setting in rocky or frozen ground.
Narrow lane in background extends 100 yards and widens into V-shaped wings. Loading
chute and catching pen is in the foreground. Photo by R. F. Cooney, Montana Fish and
Game Commission.
program has been the speetacnlar increast's in numbers of antelope,
due to restoration and management activities by the States. Once
ranging from Iowa to California and from Canada to Mexico, and
counted in the millions, occupied ranges and antelope numbers were
whittled to nubbins. Changed land nse, overgrazing by sheep, over­shooting
and predation were responsible.
To spread these speedsters onto lands that are still suitable for
them, trapping and transplanting have been conducted. More than
7,000 antelope in eight western States have been liberated in new
homes. Texas leads, that State having trapped and moved 2,675 of
them. Through experimentation, traps have been designed that can
be erected quickly and where the corralled pronghorns can do them­selves
the minimum of injury. Bands selected for trapping are spotted
and herded into the traps by airplanes. Truck bodies have been de­signed
to permit loost' loading, getting away from awkward, individual
crating. Transportation losses are negligible under this system (Fig­ure
5).
The airplane also is a major tool of managt'ment. Open seasons are
based upon ability of the populations to stand hunting pressure. In
order to get the faets about numbers, sex ratios, and the fawn crop.
the Statt's have used the airplane to do the job (luickly, cht'aply, and
accurately.
In some cases, predation by coyotes has proved to be a limiting
factor. Their killing is confined principally to the kids. Where neces­sary,
some predator control has been done to take pressure off remnant
populations, or to prepare the range for seed-stock releases. Arizona
studies have shown an excellent increase in fawn survival where coyote
eontrol has been undertaken. Fawn survival was in direct ratio to the
degree of control, being as high as 95 percent where intensive control
campaigns were conducted, and a'> low as 21 percent where control
was lacking.
Complaints by Texas eattIe ranchers about competition between
antelope and cattle for available forage, resulted in a study being
made to get the facts. It was fonnd that a range steer would eat as
mueh eattle forage a,> 38 antelope. The rt'ason is that in addition to
the great difference in consumption due to the disparity in weight,
antelope are essentially browsers while cattle confine themselves almost
entirely to grass. Spreading the rt'sults of this study in Texas and
plsewhere has helped allay past misapprehensions and ch·ar the way
for expansion of antelope rehabilitation work.
The non-competitive nature of antelope, and the fact that there are
millions of acres of public land in the West over which these animals
can range freely, have made it generally unnecessary to buy land for
their use. The major exception was the purchase of the 9,000-acre
Raymond Ranch in Coconino County, Arizona, by the Arizona Game
and Fish Commission, to provide the nucleus for the Anderson Mesa
antelope range. Control over 5,000 acres of State-owned lands was
obtained by lease and exclusive grazing rights were assigned to wild­life
on 5,000 acres in the adjacent Coconino National Forest. This
State-owned and ('ontrollt'd unit provides ('ssential winter range for
Arizona's largest antelope herd and it ensnrE'S the does. coming
22
through the winter and into the critical fawning period in good condi­tion.
This State antelope establishment has been fenced to prevent
trespass by domestic livestock. Water sources have been developed
to insure an ample supply of good drinking water. Previously-erected
ranch headquarters buildings have been remodelled to provide suitable
quarters for the State employee who is responsible for management
and maintenance of the land and improvements.
Mountain Sheep
Ten years ago the fear was prevalent that the bighorn sherp was a
vanishing sprcies. Pittman-Robertson investigations verified the low
state of popUlations, but not the vanishing predictions, if protection
and sensible management were applied. Recommendations came out
of those studies for trapping and transplanting wherever a surplusage
prrmitted. Traps were devised and successful corralling methods
developed. Montana moved 25 out of its small Sun River herd to the
Gates of the Mountains country on the Missouri River, near Helena,
where Lewis and Clark reported large numbers in 1804. Montana
also obtained 16 bighorns from Colorado, in exchange for mountain
goats. These have been released in a half-section woven wire enclosure
in hereditary sheep country in the Missouri River breaks, bordering
the Fort Peck Reservoir. Surplus animals will be permitted to leave
the enclosure. By that time the sheep should be sufficiently accus­tomed
to the new country so that long-range wandering in search of
accustomed Rocky Mountain terrain need not be feared.
With its famous Tarryall herd to draw from, Colorado is in the best
position to get seed stock onto vacant but suitable ranges. To date,
that State has trapped and moved 152 sheep, not including those
traded to Montana. New Mexico has performed some water impound­ing
work to provide a permanent source of water for bighorns in the
Big Hatchet Mountains. Previously, these sheep had to travel a long
distance down into cattle country for water.
Texas' Sierra Diablo mountain sheep project is the only acquisition
undertaken primarily to aid bighorns. The projcct proposes the pur­chase
of a block of very rugged land, containing almost 20,000 acres,
in Hudspeth and Culberson Counties, to protect the Texas remnants
of this species. To date, 5,325 acres of the proposed purchase area
have been acquired.
Mountain Coat
Surveys of mountain goat range were made in Montana to deter­mine
approximate numbers, sex ratio, extent of range, life history and
migratory habits. This information was badly needed to insure the
best possible management of these animals.
Montana deviscd suitable traps and succeeded in catching 54 moun­tain
goats. Colorado obtained eight of them in exchange for mountain
sheep. The remainder was released by Montana in mountain ranges
lying east of the Rockies. There had never been any goats in the
places the releases were made, but conditions there were comparable
to those found in occupied ranges in the l~ockies. Very satisfactory
results are coming from Montana's efforts to sprcad the range of this
interesting and valuable big game specie".
23
Colorado never had any Ro(~ky Mountain goats, at least during his­toric
times. There is no good reason, however, why these animals
should not prosper in the placf's they were released in that State.
Moose
Pittman-Robertson investigations in Montana in 1945 showed the
population to be around ;~,600 head. These were scattered in three
loealities in the western part of the State. These surveys revealed
over-populations in certain parts of tIl{> winter range, and unbalanced
sex ratios in others. Based on these findings, the first open season on
a special-permit system was allowed in 1945. Moderate kills of bulls
both in 1945 and 1946 were made. The part hunting plays in scatter­ing
these animals has not been determined, but recent increases have
been noted in several places adjacent to hunted areas. Moose also
were found to have very definite migration habits which are closely
related to palatability changes in forage.
In Minnesota pressure was put on the game department to open the
moose season in the Northwest Angle - the most northerly point in
the United States. Aerial surveys by Pittman-Robertson personnel
over that area and other places in northern Minnesota occupied by
this largest member of the deer family showed that the moose popula­tion
was not high enough to justify an open season. These findings
were accepted by the game department and no hunting has been per­mitted
(Figure 6). A similar investigation in Wyoming showed that
a hunting season could be justified in 194(), and 200 animals were
subsequently harvested. This was an increase in kill over any previous
war between 1940 and 1945.
. \Vyoming experimented with trapping and transplanting and in
the winter of 1947-1948 was su('('essful in moving eight moose to new
locations.
Buffalo
Arizona has a free-ranging herd of buffalo in House Rock Valley,
close to the Colorado River in Coconino County. These animals range
on public domain along with domestic livestock. Under agreement
with the local grazing district, the herd is limited to 200 animals.
Numbers above that rate are harvested by hunting, through the
/.
2·1
medium of special per­mits.
To supply an as­sured
source of water, a
pipeline several miles in
]pngth was laid to tap
permanent water on the
adjoining Kaibab N a­tional
For est. \Vater
troughs were installed
along the pipeline. This
Figure 6. Moose being
counted from the air. Photo
by W. W. WeHschreck, Min­nesota
Department of Conser­vation.
Pittman-Robertson development has enabled the buffalo to utilize fully
the range they occupy.
Buffalo and antelope complrnH'nt one another in their feeding
habits - the buffalo being primarily grass raters and the antelope
browsers. Mindful of that, 42 buffalo were trapped in House Rock
Valley and released on the 20,OOO-acre Anderson Mesa antelope range.
An additional 17 were obtained from the Wichita National Wildlife
Refuge of the Fish and Wildlife Service, and rrleased on the Mesa.
Through these actions, the Arizona Fish and Game Commission now
has two thriving herds.
Kansas is the only other State that has done anything for buffalo,
under the Pittman-Robertson program. In that State a 520-acre
area was purchased and frnced, to expand the Finney County Game
Preserve as a refuge for buffalo and othrr game species.
Javelina
The javrlina, or peccary, has rrceivrd drwlopmental attention by
one State. Trxas live-trapprd and transplanted six of these animals,
under one project. Arizona is making a study of thrse animals in the
southern part of that State to ascertain their prrsrnt distribution and
numbers. These findings will be the basis for further studies and
management recommendations.
Bear
Black brar have recrivrd s(>('ondary attention in many woodland
acquisitions. Being secretive and difficult to hunt, they are not classed
as a major big-game specirs. Krntucky has imported and released
10 of these animals on big-game refuges in an attempt to extend their
range in thl:1t State.
In Virginia, bear damage complaints WHe investigated by Pittman­Robertson
personnel. It was found that the damage was not serious.
As a result of this study the Commission was able to reject a petition
to extend the open season on black bear or remove it entirely from the
protected list.
Workers in Colorado and Montana have rrported that there is a
drfinite correlation between brar damage and the scarcity of natural
foods during certain seasons of the year.
While no specific projects have bren set up for bear studies, many
of the Statrs have gathered data on them incidental to other work.
Waterfowl
With the help of Pittman-Robrrtson funds, many States for thc
first time were able to finance waterfowl restoration work. It was for­tunate
indeed that they could move in to take up some of the slack.
Duck stamp sales more than doublf'd during the ten years, bringing
a spectacular increase in hunting pressure j high crop prices stimulated
the drainage of marshes j and well-financed hunting clubs bid high
for control of the fast shrinking waterfowl habitat.
Work to aid waterfowl has been performed by 38 States. This has
included the purchase and devrlopment of lands, the conduct of field
studies to locatf' and appraise likely restoration sitrs, and the gather­ing
of facts needed for better management of the resource. Almost
25
I
I
126,000 acrrs of land have been bought in 70 areas. Typieal example~
of such purehases are New .Jersry's -1,4~)6-acre Egg Island Marsh; Oak
Orchard, totaling 2,2-13 acres in ~ ew York; the Cheyenne Bottoms in
Kansas, ('ontaining 18,711 acft'S; Colorado's South Platte River ac­quisition
calling for the eventual control of 14,000 acres; and Oregon's
Sauvies Island, which will total over 12,500 acres. Iowa has dipped
into its Pittman-Robertson income to step up action on its 25-ycar
waterfowl restoration program. In thc heart of the high-priced land
of the corn belt, that State aequired 15 fine waterfowl areas totaling
6,600 acres during the 10-year period.
Effcetive management of lands for dmks and geese calls for control
of water levels. This is accomplished through construction of dams,
dikes, spillways, canals, and othrr features peculiar to first-class marsh
management. Such improvements have been made on 34 areas in 22
States. An outstanding example of this work was the development of
the Ogden Bay Unit on the gently sloping mud flats bordering Great
Salt Lake. Formerly a skim of water would cover those salty flats
from time to time. In late summer and early fall the ducks would con­('
cntrate there and periodically thousands would be killed by botulism.
Utah built a series of dikes enelosing 6,500 acres of these mud flats
and interior dikes to permit shifting of water levels within the main
impoundments. Spillways to let the water in and out were built into
the dikes. Ample water was available for diversion from the 'Weber
River which flows into Great Salt Lake at this point. Raising or lower­ing
water levels helps check botulism when sick ducks appear. Shal­low
flooding of the fertile delta lands produce an abundance of water­fowl
food plants. An additional 6,000 aeres of unimproved marshes
and mud flats lie between the dikes and the Lake. This development is
not only an attractive stopping place for migrating birds, it also is a
top-notch waterfowl factory. In 1947, a one-mile stretch along the
banks of an interior channel revealed over 200 waterfowl nests.
Canada geese owned 17 of them (Figures 7 and 8).
The Ogden Bay project is managed as a refuge and public shooting
gronnds - half of the developed lands being devoted to each use.
During the 1946--17 open seasons, more than 10,000 hunters bagged
almost 16,000 birds here.
~ew .Jersey owned a 13,000-acre tidal marsh near Atlantic City.
The scarcity of open water and the rank profusion of salt marsh
grasses offered little attraction to wildfowl. By constructing dikes
now totaling ovn 27,000 lineal feet, the State has been able to trap
fresh water along the margin of the marsh. Close to 3,000 acres of
salt marsh has been transformed into a series of fresh water im­poundments
which provide ideal conditions for the birds (Figures 9
and 10). And the remaining salt marsh has not been ne~lected. Using"
dynamite, the thick vf>getative mat has been blasted to create a pattern
of quartt'r-aere ponds (Figure 11). The Tuckahoe development is
llIanagf>d as a eombination waterfowl refuge and public shooting
grounds. It is first-class both ways.
In thf> spring of 1946, the Missouri Conservation Commission started
buyin~ ;3.000 acrf'S of flood plain along the Grand River, ill Linn and
Living-ston Counties, for the FOllntain Grove Waterfowl Management
r
Figures 7 and 8. The above scene shows thousands of botulism-killed ducks on a four­mile
stretch of mud flats at Ogden Bay prior to diking and restoration. Below is the
healthy situation created by construction of diklts and spillways to im pound and manage
Weber River waters. Photos by Lee Kay, Utah Fish and Game Commission.
,) ,
..
-.
• p-
,
, '
Figure 9. Ditch plug construction with a three-quarter yard dragline in diking work
at Tuckahoe, New Jersey. Photo by L. G. MacNamara, New Jersey Department of
Conservation.
Figure 10. One of the marshy lakes created by diking and trapping fresh water at
Tuckahoe, New Jersey. Photo by L. G. MacNamara, New Jersey Department "f Conse,
vation.
28
Figure II. Dynamiting a pond in the unimproved salt marsh on Tuckahoe project.
Photo by L. G. MacNamara. New Jersey Dep.lrtment of Conservation.
Unit. 'fhat was followed by eonstrudion to divprt flood wah-rs into
a series of pools formed by a system of eross dik('s. By the fall of
] 948, dewlopmpnt was ll(·arly (·olllplef('d. Part of the (·stahlishmr.nt
was opened to publie shooting and the hnnters obtained g'oo(l returns
despite the fact the pools were only partially filled. Thus in two
seasons the State was able to transform a large dlllnk of unproduetive
flood plain into an attraetive waterfowl manaw'ment unit.
The Oregon Game Commission is prond of its ];3,650-aere Summer
Lake Waterfowl Management Area. Alkali flats, exposed by the
dwindling lake, made this opportunity. Oreg-on bong-ht the privately­owned
lands needed, then proceeded with improvement work. \Vater
was available from the Anna River, whieh heads a few miles north in
a duster of profusely-flowing spring'S. Diversion dams were built,
eanals excavated and low dikes eonstruded to eOlltrol and spread the
water over the parched lands. The work is not eompleted, but close
to a,ooo acreS have already been converted into a highly-productive
waterfowl marsh. Wheat and rye are planted on bordering uplands
each yrar to provide additional nourishll~ent for local and migrating
ducks and g'eese. Hunting is pcrmitted 011 half the area; the other
half is a sanctuary. Illformation gathered dming' the first half of
29
Figure 12. Hunters returning from public shooting grounds at Summer Lake. Photo
by A. V. Meyers. Oregon Game Commission.
the 1948 split hunting season disclosed a harwst of 8,669 ducks and
geese fro:n :3,367 man-days of shooting, or better than 2.6 birds per
man-day (Figure 12). But Summer Lake is morc flail a l'ombination
rt'fuge and pnblic shooting grounds, it is also a spll'IHlid illl'ubator.
The production records show that this Pittman-l{occrtson pt'ojed
rears 6,000 ducks and 1,500 Canada geese each year.
Horicon Marsh, \Visconsin, is a fine example of nnwisc re('la'l:ation
followed by a costly salvage job. In its original state this 30,OOO-acre
marsh was a famous waterfowl ll('sting and concentration spot and a
splendid producer of mink and muskrats. Unfortnnatply, the marsh
was drained some 50 years ago to uneover more agril'nltural law]s.
After the lands wcr(' d!'hydrated and rnined for wildl ife it wa-;
](>arned that the sour Iwaty soil would Bot grow erops.
In 1940, the Wisconsin COltserYation Commission 1111(1 tl:(' Fish and
\Vildlife Service entered into an agreement whpr!'by the ~tate would
buy and restore the southern part of the former marsh, and the Scrvi('c
would take like action on the northern part. 'rhis two-prongt'd re­habilitation
campaign was to be financt'd by the State, with the h('lp
of Pittman-Robertson funds, and by the St>rvice with Duek Stamp
money. Executing its part of the agr('pmrnt, \Vis('onsin pr(wrf'ded to
buy nearly 10,000 acres of land in the southl'r11 part of the marsh.
lkstoration has followell, through required developuH'lltal (lJ'oje:·t;;.
Half of the State's marshy spreall is dosed to hunting-; the rcuwindpl'
is open. \Vhile fur animals were ineiti('ntal to tht' n:ain purpose of
restoration, the \Viseonsin Conservation Departll'Pnt's dividends frolll
this source of cash ineome, are substantial. During the 1 D47 -48 trap­ping
season, for exam pit', the State sold its half of the share-trapped
mink and muskrats for $15,000. 'l'hat money is helping' pay for
restoration and manag-ement work on the property.
Replacing low-quality plants with hi~h-qualit:v food producers has
been undertaken by n:any States. Elimination of noxious vl'g'etatioll
is a('complished by cutting, discing, sImwing- with hprbicides such as
2,4-D, and by controlled burning. Nl'W York is rapidly elrarillg water­rhestnut
from the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers. This worthless ('xotie
threatened to ehoke all other vE'g-etation in the quil't waters of thosp
streams until it was sucepssfullv batth'd by 1I1ldpt'water wec(l ('uttp['S
and 2,4-D sprayed by airplanE'S: hdieopt('rs' and hand PUl\} ps. \ViSl'Oll-
30
sin has used controlled burnin'" to "'ood effect on its Horicon Marsh,
to eheek the growth of willo; an;1 aspen and thus provide gOOf'll'
pasturage. Maine has made extensive elearings on Swan Island, and
has seedNI them with rye, Ladino elov('r ancl other plants to supply
QTeen foo<ls for gcese during the spring migration.
Food pJantingf'l have been made on :34 projeds in 20 States. TeIllH's­see
is performing- a king-sized job Oll the 185-mile long Kentw·ky
Resl'l'Voir undrr a coopl'rative agrepmpnt with t'1e Tcnnessee Valley
Authority. Certain shallow water areas at the reservoir margin have
bpf'n diked and are pumped dry each spring to eliminate a prime set­up
for malarial mosquitos. Crops of corn, peas, soya beans, whl'at
and oats are produced on these dewatered lands. In the fall- after
the IJ'osquito-breeding spaHon is over - the croplands are flooded
(l'~igare 13). These recently installt'd cafeterias have been a spectacu­lar
Hll('ecss. In Ig46-47, 14,000 <lurks and GO Canada geese wintered
Iwre. This jumped to 50,000 dutks and GOO honkers in the winter of
1D47 -48. 'rhe splendid results coming from its maiden efforts to do
something for the birds and hunters have encouraged the Tennessee
Conservation Dppartmpnt to pxpand opcrations. 1\1l :;ites suitable for
watprfowl dpvelopment in th(' other rescrvoirs treated by the Ten­nesse
Valley Authority within the State will be included in this habi­tat
improvenwllt program.
Surveys and illve:;tigations - biolo~i('al, engineering and land ac­quisition
are the foundation of land purehasrs and dcvrlopments for
waterfowl. Field studies also provide administrators with the fads
about production, hunting pressure and kill, and many other featnres
that brar upon the wrll-tl'ing and ('ontinup<l abundanec of waterfowl.
During the first ten years of Pittman-Robertson operations, about one­fifth
of all money investt'd in investigativ<~ work was devoted to duclvs
and g-eese. New York, Minne:;ota, Connedicut, Massachusetts, and
Oregon, lead the parade in locating and studying likely sites for
future acquisition and development.
Kill records now are being obtained in large enough quantities so
Figure 13. Food plantings for waterfowl in Kentucky Reservoir dewatered areas are
flooded in t~e fall when pumping operations for malaria mosquito control are dis­continued.
Photo by Tennessee Department of Conservation.
that the hunting (lrain on the available supply ean be detrrmined.
During the 1D47 oprn season, 15 States stressed this line of work.
This information, whrn corrriated with like data collrrtrrl by the Fish
and \Vildlife Scnier, providrs an important aid to etfretive manage­mrnt.
California and Minnrsota have stndied watrrfowl food plants, their
distribution, propagation and use by thc birds. The New England
:-Hates have made ('xtrnsive surveys on pel g-rass. This aquatie - a
very important watprfowl food plant along the North Atlantic Coast
- was almost exterminated by a blight i;ome years ago. Its eomeba~k
is i;low but promising.
The growing problem of lead-shot poisoning has been investigated
by Minncsota ami Michigan. Fipld studics by both States have located
heavy concentrations of such pellrts in certain marshrs and lakes.
X-ray and fluoroscope rxaminations of wintering dueks showed that a
high pereentage have l('ad shot in th('ir gizzards and are suffering
from It'ad poisoning. Miehigan flnoroseoped spring migrants during
balJ(iiug' operations, and found as high as 25 pere('nt of the puddle
dlleks ('arrying l('ad in th(·ir tlpsh (l<~ig-llI'('S U and 15).
'With increai-wd hunting pr('ssur(', ('rippling losses have mounted.
On six 'Wisconsin marsh!'s, it was fonnd that 4,561 hunters bagged
:{,D4~) birds and erippled an additional 1,010. Much of this waste could
be averted by more earefnl shooting' and the Ilse of hunting dogs.
Studies on Horicon Marsh, \Viseonsin, disl'losed that gunners using
dog-s failed to r!'trieve only 8.:~ p<'rc<'llt of thr waterfowl shot down,
while those without dogs lost 18.7 p<'rcrnt of the birds they knocked
out of the air.
Many nrw techniqurs in watrrfowl managemrnt have been devel­oped.
These range from invrntorying mrthods, as illustratf'd by the
State-wide aerial ernsus in Colorado, to the ehrmical and mechanical
('ontrol of nndpsirable aquaties s\1('h as watprdwstnut in New York
and water-hyaeinth and alligator wppd in Alabama. Population tr('nds
haye been studicd in many Stafrs through banding, invrntorying,
drtermining 11f'st ing SlH'cess, analyzing hunter sueeess and erippling
losses, checking of s('x and ave ratios and g-ath('ring data on migra­tions.
Massachusf'tts tr(~hni('ians have dcvis<,d a bettcr way to rnconrag-e
wood dueks to use nesting boxes. They ('xperimrnted and learned that
when these sheltprs wrre plaeed on po1<'s srt in the water, the oceu­pancy
increascd to ovcr !)!) pPl'('('nt as ('ompared to 40 pf'reent use
when the boxes were nail!'d to tr('es. Tr('e locations wrre too attractive
to squirrels, raeeoons, owls, and bees. The suee!'ss attained in Massa­ehusetts
has encouraged New Hampshire and PpJ1l1sylvania to embark
on extensive programs of eonstrllction and distribution of these artifi­cial
nesting- sites to increase the numb<'rs of this gandy member of the
duek family.
Bobwhite Quail
The various spreirs of quail nati\'{' to the United Statf's romprise a
g-roup of outstandingly important g-anH' birds. A mongo th<'111 the bob­white
l'l'igns as king over a large part of the nation.
3:!
Figure 14. Fluoroscopic exam·
ination of migrating black duck to
determine number of shot in bird's
body. Photo by Michigan Depart.
ment of Conservation.
Figure 15. X-ray photo of same black duck showing it is carrying 10 lead pellets from
past body wounds. Photo by Michigan Department of Conservation •
•
c\
•
33
When the Pittman-Robertson program began, bobwhite restoration
eonsisted almost entirely of stocking pen-reared birds. Sportsmen
had been sold on the eif{,(·tivl'ness of that approa(·h. Improved game
farm techniqul's I'nabled ganl!' breeders to turn ont birds in large
quantities. It was generally assumed that liberal dosag'es of artificially
produced quail were the sure ('nre for ailing populations.
Field studies eonducted sinee 19:18 have proVE'd that game farm
products have been grossly over-ratl'd as a means of inereasing the
supply of bobwhites. Such stoekings have all too frequently been
earried on with little or no attention to the adequacy of food and
('over where liberations were made, or to the ability of released birds
to survive under wild conditions. Chronic failures w(~re inevitable.
Even where stocking has heen ean'ipd on to improve hunting con(li­tions
immediately, hunters' bags the first season have been found to
contain only 4 to :l:3 p('re('lIt of the birl]s rplpasl'd. Vpr,v few aI'('
bagged the seeond season. The gTE'at majority of stoekl'd birds dis­appeared
rapidly from release sites. Beeause they are abnormally
tame, many arl' taken by prt'dators. SOllie arl' lost to exposure and
otll!'rs simply wandel' away. Stndips in P('nnsylvania have shown that
although popnlar with the hnlltl'l's, tlw l'estol'killg [lrogt'alll, for thl'
money eXjwnt!ed, has been the ]Past I'tf('(·tiv(~ of the (~Ollllllissioll 's quail
management praetiees.
'fhe suceess of restocking ('an only be ml'asllrpd by tlw Humber of
bird:,; that survive and rpprodul'l'. Dl1l'ing- th(~ Jwriod from 1940 to
1942, Oklahoma baudI'd H:l,OOO of its jWlI-raised qnail to find out what
happened to tllPlll after rple(lsp. By.J Illy 1, 1 !142, 7!)4 ban (Is had been
rptul'ned. That was less than one 1)(,1'('(,l1t of the total l1umber band(~(l.
l\nd more to the point: two areas in ('astern Okiahollla stol'i{('d with
108 birds in S('ptpmbpr 19·n wpre hl1ntpd intensively during the lath'I'
half of NOVt'Illb('r of thp sallle Y('ar. SP\,Plltv-seven binls wpre kill(~d
on olle arpa all(i 42 on the otiwr, making' ~ total of 119 bobwhitps
bag-gl'd. But only :n, or :n per(,Pllt of the birds takpl1 wpre hakllPl'Y
birds; 82 or (j9 ppreent wpre wild-l'pared.
Here is another illnminating ('xampl('. I\('lltlll'ky has bpen making
intensive field studies on the f'ffeets of liberating- pen-rpared quail.
Data concerning the snrvival of birds t'pll'ased during' the fall of
1946 disclosed that only 28 per('pnt of them were found on the stoeked
areas two months after they were liberated. ){pturns from livp­trapping
showed that by Ap'ril 1!l47 only 8 Iwr('('nt of thpse gallle
farm products were present.
The 1947 spring qnail (,pnsns of Pulton COllnty, PPIlns,vlvania, was
of partieular intel'Pst beeause it was ('ondn\'tpd as a test to It,am til<'
real worth of the qnail sto('king program th roughol1t tllP State. r II thl'
('astern one-third of Fulton County where 1,000 adult quail had bl'l'll
released in April 194H, the ('Ollnt rPlllained at 1 H ('OV('YS, (~xad.ly thp
same IlUlllber found during the Mart·h 1941) (·(,IISI1S. 1\ llllost all of th('sl'
(~OVl'ys were at or within a short distance of the samp pla('ps wh(,l'l'
they had wintered in 1945-46. 'rhis indieated a survival of lIati\'('
stoek only. In the western sed ion of the eounty, where 1,000 pe11-
reared birds had been released in September 1946, there was a gain
of one ('ovey over the nnmber fOllnd tlw previolls spr'ing (18 t.o 1!l).
It was iwlieved that fiv(~ of the IH COV!'."S (·ollld be slll'viving J'PlIllIants
34
of the September release because these coveys were isolated from pre­vionsly
occupied ranges. In the middle division of the county which
had receivrd IlO pen-rpal'cd birds, the total number had increased by
six coveys (30 to :16), bnt evpn here the mortality from fall to spring
had bePIl pronounced. The cpusus showpd, however, that wild birds­withont
any ht'lp from game farm additions - were able to maintain
tlwir numb!'rs for a ppriod of a year during whieh lH'arly all of the
2,000 pen-reared quail were lost.
The rcsnlts of nparly 100 fit'ld :-;tn<iit's in 29 Rtatp:-; have proved to
wildlife a(lministrators that the dividt'lHls from qnail :-;toeking pro­grams
are low indeed. This has led to a shift in restoration emphasis:
quail living quarters are either bring ereated or improved on the land.
\Vithout required food and cover conditions, no amount of stocking -
be'it wil(l or artificially propagated birds - will put more bobwhites
lwrmanently in the eovprts.
fn the Sonthpast, where the bobwhite is game bird No.1, habitat
im provPIlH'nt Plll plHuiizes field bor(lcr (':-;tablishments whieh combine
two :-;hrllbby ('xobe IpgnIlH':-;, bi(~olor and s('ri('('a kspedezas. Bi('olor
('ontriblltes littl(, in the way of eo"pr hilt its sppds provide a mneh
:-;ollght-aftpr winjpr food; seri('pa grows low and <1pnse and supplies
nN,ting and (~:-;('ape e()v(~r. Th('se plantings for quail not only increase
birds numbers and make the hnnters happy, but the farmer also
lwnpfits - and that is the key to enthusia"ltic aeeeptanee. The field
horders ehp('k woodlands frolll Illoving' in on eroplands, provi(le a ('011-
venicnt turnrow for the farmers and ('Ilrb soil erosion. The Soil Con­seryation
Reryiee rpcolllllwn<ls sH('h phmtini~s to it'; (·ooperators. Ob­servations
and hunter t'xperipnees show that qllail are almost ('crtain
to be fOllnd in or near tlwse field bor<i('rs. LmHlowners, sportsmen
and g'ame te('hni(~ians are hig-h in tht·ir praise of the splendid results
('oming- from this type of hahitat impI'Ov(,I1I(,llt \\'ol'k (L"igm'p 1H).
(lpoqria's farm game habitat rt'storation proje('t is typi('al. Beglln
Figure 16. Bicolor lespedeza field border provides excellent winter food for bobwhite
quail. Photo by James W. Webb, South Carolina Game and Fish Department.
35
in 194:3, the work is state-widp ill seo!>p. 1t operates throng'h Soil
ConserYation Distril'ts. O('or;!ia's first trouble was in gptting enongh
bieolor sped to (listribut(, to tl](' farHH'rs for planting. Then too, many
failures ('ame from rlired s('('(ling and a shift was HUH Ie to growing
seedlings in nnrst'rit's for later transplanting. r II Hl-1-S, the produetion
of bieolor s(,(,tlling's totalpd n('arl.\' :P/~ millions. During the last five
~'t'ars, almost ii,OOO of tl]('sp tipld horders ha\'(~ bepn pstablishpd ill
Ororgia. ~ill1ilar proje('fs are olwrating lIO\\' in North Carolina,
Louisiana, Alabama, Arkansas, :::iol1th Carolina, Florida, Virginia,
and Mississippi.
General farm game habitat. imprO\'('IlH'llt proj(,l'ts which utilize th(~
lespt'dezas to a It'sst'r l'xtPl1t arc fpatllrpd in Illinois, Ohio, Indiana,
Oklahoma, -:\lissonri, \Vest Virg'inia, Dplaware, Mar~'land, and Penn­sylvania.
{~nfort.llnat,·J.\', lpslw<ieza bi('olor will not pl'o(ilH'e seed in th!'
northern part. of t hI' ('onntn'.
Maryland's ('oopprati\'(' fal'm gamp program illllstrates a sOIlH'what.
difi'erpnt and IlIOI'(, ('OlllIH'plwllsin' approa('h to helping' qnail and oth!'r
rpsidpnt sp('('ips of IIpland ~nlnH'. 'J'IH' (lame D('IHll'tIlH'nt furnish('s
tpl'hni('al glli(lal}(,(" s(,pd, planting st()('k, f(,lwing llIatprials and signs
for lands to be impr()\'('(l. Th(' ('<loppratol's providp the lahor, Im­pro"
Ved ar('as rang(' from fiv(' to GO a('I'ps ill siz(~. '1'h(' landoWIH'rS agr('(~
to maintain not I('ss tban fly\, a('rps in an inviolate sant'tllarv and to
allow hunting on their lan(ls as tlw.\' }Ul\'(' in til<' past. This Maryland
habitat impro\'('llJ('nt work is ('()]l(lu\'f('d in ('ool)('ration with til(' ~oil
Conservation Distl'id.s, 4-Il Clubs, Izaak \Va!t.o!l Lt'aglw Chapt!'rs,
and otber ('ons('l'\'ation dllbs, tl1<' :-\tat(~ D('pal'tlll(,lIt of Por('sts and
Parks, the University of Man'lalHl Ext('nsiol1 :-\('rvi('(', farmers, and
othprs. :-\ll<·h broad g'ang(' ('ool)('ratiol1 ('xpands snpport, sl)('('(ls
progr('ss, and i!ls1lr('s stability.
Providing badly np('d('(l li\'illg' qual't('I's for quail anti other fal'JlI­lano
wildlife is a whale of a hi!! job. Illinois, for ('xalllple, ('ontains :12
million a('r('s of farmland and 200,000 fal'llIs. I1alf of tlw farms lll'(,d
small r('f1lgps and fiel(l bord('r ('stahlishlll('lltS. To ('omplete the task
('alls for lOO,OOt) III i l('s of f(,IH'('-row planting'S and 2GO,OOO a('r('s of
de\'t~loppd s('('d st()('k l'pfll;!!'S. During tlH' spring of 1 !l-lH, the Stat(~
planted 12G mil('s of f(,I](,(, I'O\\'S and 2':)00 a('I'ps of s(,pd st<H'k refuges.
This complpted th(' work Oil -lOO,OOO W'I'('S of th(' State's ('roplands,
Multiflora rose is til(' prilH'ipal planting sto('k, The progrpss is very
satisfador,v for tl1<' amount of 1lI01H',\' Iwing' il1\'('stt'(1, hut adioll mnst
he stepped np. Illinois is ('nlistill!.! all possiblp h(·lp in a('('olllplishing
this (Fignre 17).
Land pur('hases for bobwhitps have bppn quitp 1I11l11(,I'Ol\S ill the past­('
rn half of the ('onntry. Many of the ar(';ts pllI'(·has('d wpre ahandoned
or snbmar;!inal farms. Tb(' lands honght al'(~ 1lI1llti-pnrpose units to
inerease production of ('ottontail rabbits ami sqnirr('is as well as qnai!.
8neh aequisitions are illlproy('d for g.·ame by l'Oypr plantings, seeding
food patches, fencing', and po:--ting,
Scaled, Mountain, Valley, and Cambel's Quail
The priu('ipal limiting fador on qnail (ll'o<illd.ioll, 0\'('1' millions of
lW!,('S of arid land in the \V('st, is hH'k of wat('t', 1<'00(1 sllpplit's, pyt'n in
36
Figure 17. Multiflora rose field borders provide tight living fence and excellent wild­life
cover. Photo by Illinois Department of Conservation.
<1('s('rt alld n('ar-ilpsl'rt sitnations, arc ample to sllstain larg-c numbers
of tI](';..;e birds. B!'(':l1Ise of this, California's qllail-watt~ring- installa­tions,
known as thc "gallinaecol1s gnzzler," have b('('n a sIwt'ta(mlar
sltee('ss (Fignre ]8).
Cnn-('nt ('onstrnl'tion is tlw pro<lttet of It\\l('h paillstaking {'xlwri­llH'lItation.
Desig'lls progTcssf'd from ('ombination metal storag-e tanks,
('aIling- for mannal filling, and slllall watl'ring- basins with float valves
snbj('l't to nnpr<'didahlt, failnrl's, to thl' prl's('nt ('xtrtmwly praetipal
arrall.!!!'I1H'nt. 'rhis ('())Jsists of a thin ('Oll('rl'tc wat('r-(~olleeting- apron
('ov('r('(1 with an asphalt Pllllllsion, to fill any ('ra('ks that lIlay develop.
,Vat('r, falling Oil tltt' apron, fiows by g-ravit.v into an nndcrg-round
storag-r. tank mad!' of pOllrpd ('OI1('r('tf'. Thf' nsc of portable forms
savps nllwh timr. in ('(ll1strnd.iol1, and rf'imlts in tanks of It standard
;;iz(' and <lpsig-n. A narrow oTwning- abont pig-ht ilwhes high, in front
of the storag-(' tank, ('Il<lhks tlw qnaiJ to pntpr alld ohtain wate,·.
NlllaJI-dialll('t<,,'('d st('('J "ods sd npright in th(\ ('(llll'rete at the tank
('tltnUl ('(" ]>/"('\'('nt pr('dators sll('h as ('o."ot('S, bobeats or foxcs fro III
37
gaining a('('('ss. 'I'll(' tallk
intt'rior ;;10 P('s gmt! ually
down ward frolll til(' ('11-
traJl('c, so the birds ('all al­ways
gaill a('('PSS to thl' wa­t('
r as it I'('('('d('s dlll'illg
dry wl'atlwr, without dall­gt'r
of lwillg dt'owlH'd.
Figure 18. Gallinaceous gunler
showing part of water-collecting
apron, entrance to underground
storage tank and valley quail that
have come in for water. Photo by
Ben Glading, California Fish and
Game Commission.
TIH'se concrete ref;ervoirs are built to hold about 600 gallons of
water. To assure a water suppl~' of that volume, thc f;ize of the collect­ing
apron is determined by loeal prp{~ipitation recordf;. Average rain­fall
is halvpd, and the collecting slope is made large enough to fill
the tank. For example, if the rainfall is conservatively figured at
thrpe inches per year, a surface of :120 square feet will fill thc 600-
gallon storage reservoir. Despite drought l'on{litions in California
(luring 1948, not a single gallinaeeous guzzlpr wpnt {lry. Thc eonstrnc­tion
is simple and maintenance costs are inconsequential.
The prcsen('c of this water supply has rp,mlted in Iwak quail popu­lations
of several hundred, in places where there were nOlle previollsly.
Not only are largpr populations of thpse sought-after game birds being
produl'pd, but thpy no longer have to travel long distames to obtain
water during dry ppriods.
Thr peonomit's of thpse quail oasrs are on the plpasing side. Cali­fornia
has rt'du(,pd ('oMs in sonw lo{'alitips to a,.o;; low as $200 per in­stallation.
Figuring the iuv('stnwnt at I) 1)('l"{'Pllt lH'r ~'l'ar, and {lis­I'p!!'
ardillg- any littlp maintl'nal}(,{', tlw {'(lHh olltla.Y wOlIl(l he worth $10
I)('r ~·par. That wOllld pay for fivc g-allle-farm hir{ls of (lnbions ability
to survive in the wild. Game men in California fignre that a gallina­('
POUS g-uzzler is far below par if it does not prOdlH'e GO quail per
~·par. The imau:inatiol1 and p('rsist('n('e of California game terhnieians
in pt'rft'd.ing this praetieal quail-population increase (leviee is worthy
of the high('st ('ollllll('ndation. This has IH'en one of the h(·tter Pittlllan­Rohprtson
achievements.
~What haH b('('n dOll{' in Htal'ting a largc-scale qnail l"estoration pro­!!
ralll in California, is appli('ablp all oyer the low-rainfall parts of the
,Vest. Arizona, N{'vada, and Hawaii are now engaged on identical
water-providing projp\'ts.
The pllrehas('s of w('st,'rll big-g-alllP l'ang:cs haye, in Ilnmerons in­stane('
s, IH'lped th(' wPHtprn qnail. \Vh('1l thps(' rangps are fpnepd and
('attl(' grazing 1'('<lncpd, the habitat ag-aill h('('omps attra!'tive to th('8P
hirds. ~('W Mpxi('o has pnrchasp<\ Hi arpas totaling 2H,707 a('r('s, pri­llIaril,
v for prairie (·hi(·k(,lls. W('I('olll('(l H('alPd-q11ail iJl(~r('as('s ltav('
l)('el1 Ilotpd in thrs(' newly-frlw(·d arN\,S.
A 110ther ontHtanding- a(~('olllplishn\('nt in W(,Htprn qnail manag(,Jltellt
was the trapping' and t.ransplallting- of ;{,7!)0 wild Gambel's qnail ill
Arizona. }<'onr Stat(>s haY(' liYl~-trapl)f'd and distributed nearly H,I)OO
of the yarions HIW('ips of w('st('rn C]nail. Many sit('s that la{'lw(1 all
(,ff'p(·ti\'p bl'('pding- popnlation \\,pre rpst<H'k('d h,Y this prog-ram.
'l'h1'ongh ('('IIH11S Ht11di('s, Arizona ohtainpd indiHplltabl(~ ('vidplI('p
that the {jambpl'H quail popnlation was too low to IWrJllit a harv('st.
Ad.ing- on this information, the h1lnting s('aHOIl was (,los('ll on this
hir(l in 1!l-l6, for thp first tilllP in the histOl'Y of the Stat(', and 1'('­mailwd
elosed (In ring the following two seasons, has('(l on s11hseqllPllt
fipld iUYf'stigations.
Tn ilJpw Mexieo, t('('hni('ialJs have fOlll\(1 that avian malaria affed.s
Gambel's quail, bnt not the other spP(·i(>s. The limits of infcl'tioll in
the State hav\' b('I'1l !'Htahlislll'll through sampling stndi('s. \Vith this
knowlcdge, plus blood ('x<tlllinations on t.ransplant sto('k, the State now
is able to ayoid spreading this disease to malaria-free 100'alitips.
38
king-necked Pheasant
This exotie has sueceeded so well in the northern agTieultural re­gions
that it HOW has surpassed native species in importance in wide
seetions of the country, The pheasant has received primary benefits
from acquisition projeets involving 69 areas in 17 States, totaling
nearly 84,000 acres, ThC'se pnrehm;es represent additions to the game
Illanagement units in Pennsylvania, ('olllbillation refnges and public
shooting grounds in .'VIichigan, ::\iilllll'sota, and Iowa, and seed stock
l'l'fnges in Utah, "Washington, and Idaho,
lIabitat improvement projpds ranging: from those ('onfined to
speeifie State-owned areas to the ('oopel'ative State-wide type on pri­vately-
owned lands, have been nndertaken from Massachusetts to
Washingtoll, A wildlife habitat rpstoration project ('overing' the Illi­nois
prairie region illnstrates a ('oolH'I'ativt~ progralll for t1w IWlldit of
farm game spec ips, prineipally til!' pheasant, {Tnder this proj(·d., slllall
areas OIl l'ooperating' fal'lllS have Iweu feIH'ed, posted aud planted to
tl'ees, shrubs, and herbaeeous plants slleh as l(',~.nlllles, llIultiflora rose,
grains, and gTaSS('S, Mo<iifi('atiolls of this pl'ogTlllll at'P being eOIl­due
ted in Indiana, Nebraska, MilllH'sota, Nortll Dakota, South Dakota,
\Viseollsin, Miehigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania,
The Nebraska upland g'all}(' I'pstoratioll llrojed, ill oJH'I'atioll sinee
]941, benefits pheasants, prairir g-rollse and quail, primarily, and ill­(
·itlentally aids HUllgarian pat'tridg-e and rabbits. This pl'o,kct, wI! i('h
is State-wide in S('OI)(', ojlpratps Oil f<lI'lIlS ill t'J.itablislH'd soil ('OllSNva­tion
distriets, ~\ereages" illlproVl'd for wildlife are those that have
IWPIl d(~sig-natpd for sl1('h att('lltioll by soil conservation planlH'I's, The
work has in('lud('d few·iug-, posting-, and planting tt'P('s, shrubs, aud
h('l'ba(~('ous vpgetatioll, Par'ts of dC\'t'loped fanHS arc st't aside as
refuges,
An additional ft'atllt'e of the Pcnllsylvallia and Ohio prog-t'allls is the
purcbase of strips of hay for nesting' ('owr, standing' g-rain for winter
food and the l('asing of brushy or weedy pateht's for winter cover,
i{ealizillg the importalH'e of winter ('over for phl'asants, South
Dakota is l'stablishing' windlm·aks of suffi(~i('nt widths to prevent
the shelt(~rs from being snow!'d in, Studies of th(~ shelt(~r b(·its previ­ously
created in that State showed that be('a\lse of the narrow widths,
slld~ plantatiolls al'e veritable d('ath traps for thpse birds (!<'ig-\ll'('s I!)
and 20),
Heavy sto('king- from galll(' farms is still b(;ing' dOll!' in some States,
but studies hav(; shown that most of this is time and mOlwy wltl;ted,
Hnll'ss the birds art' I'l'ir'as('d illllllediatPiv ah('ad of tlw gllll, This latter
lll'adi(~e is not rl'storatioll, and ('lUlllot be apP1'ov('d as a Pittlllan­I{
obet'tsoll aetivit,v, Sillee the p}wasant has alrpa<iy takplt hold ill tilns!;
parts of tlw ('Olllltl',V snitabl(· fOl' it, thl'r'!' I'('maills ollly tlw )ll'Oblt'lll of
J't'stoekillg- sJllail areas wh('re bir'<!s ba\'(' h('en l'iiminated 01' where suit­able
habitat ('onditions have b('1'1l (h~\,plopnd, bllt hir'ds have not y!'t,
bt'(,Il I'stablished, Masscwhllsetts, "lailH', fdaho, Utah, ()l'(~gon, Cali­fornia,
Montana, Nt'w York, Pl'llns,d,'ania, and Miehigan, b? stnd,\'­illg-
l'1'1('ase and balld l'I'(~o\'('I'i('s, ha\'(~ 1'0111)(1 that IllOst birds takf'1t
hy }lIl11tr'rs on r'pst(}(·k(·d 1ll'I'IlS Ill'(' wild-hah'lH'd, d('spit(~ lihel'lll st(wk-
39
Fi9urfl 19 and 20. Above is a narrow shelterbelt which became a death trap to
pheasants see~in9 shelter from bitter winds and driftin9 snow. The wide dense wind-
',' break below assures excellent protection to these birds when bliuards invade the northern i "
, 1, :.:plains States. Photos by Roy N. Bach, North Dakota Game and Fish Department.
illg' of pen-reared birds. In Illinois, for t'xample, only [) pereent of the
rPirased birds were later bagged by hunters.
"Where thpre is a grnnine l1r('d for restoeking-, the trapping- aJl(1
transplanting- of wild birds is by far the best way to solve the problem.
Each of these wildwise ring-neeks is worth half-a-dozen pen-reared
innocents. At the end of the drollg-hty thirties, South Dakota had
some blanks in its occnpiNI range in the western part of that State.
\Vith normal prpcipitation, food and eover had returned. To hasten
the eome-baek of the birds, almost 8,500 were trapped on the Sand
Lake National \Vildlife I{efuge dnring th(' wintl'r of 1 !)40-41 and rr­Ipast'd
in suitable sit('s nct'dinO' such stoek. I(laho and Montana have
1Ist'd the Routh Dakota llH'tho(1 in aeeomplishing phea.'mnt rpstoration.
Eaeh has trapped and transplanted almost 6,000 ringneeks.
Emphasis on the lise of wild bir(ls to repop1llate va('ant or badlr
(lepl('ted rangps is not intpnded as an indietnwut against game farms
'I'he.v have thpir pla('('. Undisturbed gTasslands were ('ss(,ntial to
prairi(' grouse r('produdion. They ('ould not adjust th('lllsplV<'s to tll('
dospd agri('uItnral pa1tprn and were for('('d 01lt. The plll'asallt thl·i\'('d
among ('rop lands in the old world. Our fine popnlations of thl's(' hil'<1s
('ame from imports that weI'€' pro('('ssed throngh ganw farms. 'I'll(' r('­snIts
slwak for th('ms('lws. N('V('rth('l('ss, wildlife r(~storatioll do!'s 110t
lllean r('leasing su('h stock in the same pla('Ps ov('r and o\,er again. If
habitat is suit(lble and sound manageHH'nt is appli('d, rl'l)('at .. d rppla('p-
1ll!'1It.-; of hirds is 1II11H'(·essarv. It is Skllifi('allt that ~onth Dakota's
slwl'ta('nlar pheasant ah1\nd~n('(' ('am(' 'from au original st(wking of
2,:lOO hirds, plll'!'has!'d from (In Illinois g'ame farm. Livp-tl'appillg' and
transplantin!! of snbs('qllent irH'reas('s spl'{'ad the bird ov('r the Rtate.
South Dakota ha,s nel'cr owned a game [ann.
Rf'wral llH'thods of inv('ntorying phpasants have IWl'n (lp\'l'loppd
Ilndl'r thp Pittlllall-l{{)hprtsoll prog-ralll. Th(~ roadside ('('nS1\S was the
first SIl('('PSSflll lIH'ans of estilllating- populations. Tnitially, this joh
was dOlle hy h'(·hni(·ians and gallw ward('ns, hut ('o\'('ragp has I)('('n
g-rpatIy ('xpandp(] by ('oop€'rating rnral mail (·arriPl'S. 'l'h('se s('asonal
('01\11tS ov('r r('I)l'l's!'lItativ(' sampl!'s of the phpasallt I'allg'e pt'ovid('
('ssential ill formation on SPX ratios, brpeding sne(~('ss, and <'ffed of
hnnting prl'ssnr€'.
A more r(,('pnt dev('JopllH'nt in ('ensnsing is bm;ed on (·rowing connts
of ('o('k pheasants dnring- the br('('ding season. The population of po(·k
hirds ('an hI' qnit(' al'('nratply determinpd by this lll<'thod. Having
pr('viousl.v d<'t('rmin(,d s('x ratios from wint('r ohsprvations, the spl'ing
hrl'pding- pOJlnlation ('an th(,l1 he fig'I\r(~d b~' simpl!' at'ithlllPtie. 'file
lH'xt stl'l1 is to find 0111, the hatehillg" and rparing' Sl]('('ess. l~oadside
brood ('Ollllts fnrnish this inforlllation. That ('omplptps the annual job.
The te(·hni(·jall ('an tlwu inform his snlwrior as to whdh('r ph!'asant
populations havp g-Oll(, lip or down and re('omll}('nd hunting seasons
and bag- limits. Th('sp Pittman-HobPl'tsoll d('visf'd inv('ntoryill~
nlPtho<1s al'(' hping Ilspd wholly or in part in all ~tat<'s wh('r(' pheasaut.'I
ar(' b('ing managed. III 1 !)4H, for ('xamplp, th€' pheasant s('ason in
~ollth Dakota was shortpll!'d wllPn ('pnSHs data show('d the popHlation
was too low to withstaJl(l th(, longPt' hHlltillg- p!'riod whidl had for­l11('
rl." b('e11 set.
41
\Vhell winters are severe and g'ood l,ovpr sea nt, pheasants flock to
protpdive vPg'etatioll to avoid bittpr winds and drifting snow. This
habit has Pllabled the game dl'partnwnts in the Dakotas to make aerial
censuses. CoU('entrations of birds are photogTaphed - counting ring­necks
is then a routine office job.
Wild Turkey
During the first decade of Pittman-Robertson operations, the wild
turkey has stag'('<1 a g'ood eOlllPcal'k o\'pr most of its rang'e. The bird
that appparpd to tr bound for the zoos and museums is now being
harvested under eardullv malHl'!l,d spasons in at lpast a dozen States.
The eonl'prted efforts to' pun'hasp and llewlop woodlands especially
for turkeys have hpn lrajor bolstpring- fadors in the recovery.
Turkeys ar(e rp('piving prineipal hp)wfits from thc pureha.<;es of 22
areas totaling] 72)W2 aerps in ninp States. An outstanding example
is the -l,500-aere Ralt Spring-s Sandnary in Clark County, Alabama.
Thp nnit is managNl as a refw.!'e for a sourl'C of stoek for live-trapping­and
removal to other arpas,
IIabitat-improvPll1Put work has bppn eondneted by 15 States. Out­standing
in this respf'et are Alaba'na, North Carolina, Tf'xas, Virginia,
and \V f'st Virginia. The Virginia projp(~t provides pnvironmental im­proVE'nlPnt
on national forpsts in the monntainolls portions of the
Rtate. The work ineludps pstablishlllent. of small l·lparings which are
sppded to gra.'!srs, and planting'S of snppl!'nH'utal foods. Tn addition,
the forrst trails arp maintained in g-rass. Contiullollll nse of these
openings by tllrkr~'s, has Cern obsprwd. 'fnrkPy habitat improvements
have also grratl? Cenpfitpd rllffeli gronse and det-r. This same pattern
of development has been l'lllplo.Vl'd bv oth!'r sontheastrrll States. Texas
has entered into agTel'l1lentR with lanllowllers to dcvelop woodlands
for eirer and turkeys. Approximatpl? -l00,000 aeres have been placed
nnder manag-el1wnt. Lands are improwd b? feneing, spelling food
pat(·lws, establishment of dparings. and travrl lanes, and snpplemental
feeding, to hold the transplallt(~d birds at reI rase points nntil they are
acclimated.
With mw'h desirable vaeant range availablp, rpstol~king ha.'! bpen
nndertaken by ninc Stat!'s. TexaR ll'ads in this, having livr-trapped
and transplanted almost :~,O()O wild birds. Transplanting Merriam's
turkey in Colorado and Arizona has extended the range of this fine
snb-sprcips in those States. Colorado has relea.'!ed :i59 and Arizona
248 wild birds. Sto('king of ga~l,e-farlll birds also has been nndertaken.
Virginia rpleased 1,089, Arkansas -lOO, and Mississippi 156. Subse­qnent
stll<iips showpd that trapping and stoeking wild binls is by far
the superior method. P(,n-raised birds invariably have some domestic
strain in them and are dpfinitely inferior to wild stock. They are
llllWh more sm;ecptiblc to prpdatioll and hll11ting. Wpst Virginia and
Virginia have prog-rams on whieh game farm h('ns are placed in
fenced f'nelosnrps to be matpd with wild toms, a restoration system
developed in Ppnnsylvania. This ill pxpensive, but it has yielded very
satisfaetory results in Pennsylvania.
An Alabama stndy showpd tbat a pattern of G- to 10-lwrp forl'st
elt'arings amounting to G P('l'('Pllt of the arpa, matl'rially inen'ased and
brought about wider distribution of the birlis (\,<'igurc 21). Wintcr
Figure 21. Wild turkeys using opening that has been cleared and planted to sod
producing grasses in Salt Springs Sanctuary. Photo by Robert J. Wheeler, Jr., Alabama
Department of Conservation.
('over <'rOllS were fonl1(1 more e/fpd,ive in lIlaintaining' floeks than sn111-
HlPI' food plantings. ])pstl'lll'tioll of foxl's and bob('ats Oil A labamlt
tnrkey rang'ps was found un<i('sirable whpll !lonnal populations of
"Odt'llts weJ'e prpsl'nt.. Hemoving' pt·edat.ors swplls ro<ipnt populations
and results in ilwreased ('ollllwtition for turkey foods from rabbits,
('otton rats, and other ro<il'llts. (J razillg by dOlll('stie livestoek was
found to he detrimental on turkey mallagement areas.
1t was fOllnd that futnre wild turkey manag'elllt'llt in West Vir­g'inia
amI western Maryland shollid inelnde more elt'aring's. Hellloval
of snpprpssive forl'st gTowth pprmitted the grasses and other herba­('
pous plallts to bp('oll1e ('stablishpd. Predation in 'W pst Virginia was
of seeon<iary importanl'e as a limiting fador, eompared to poaehing'
and OVl'dlllllting'. Man still tab,s a Iwavier toll of wild turkeys in
:\lisso\ll·i than all nat.llml (,lwlllies ('olllbined, in spite of a dosed
s('ason. l,'t'ol\l 1 !)25 to 19-t1, lIlore than 14,000 artificially-propagated
tllrlwys were rl'leased in Missouri in an effort to illl'rease dedining
populatiolls. Jk(~allse results <lid not jllstify ('osts. al'tifi(~ial restocking'
was abandOlwd bv the COllllervation Commission in 1!)43 in favor of
better proteetion 'and management of wild native stoel\.
Rulled Crouse
Throng-hout the woodland areas of the northern States, especially
wht't'e there ill a predominance of se(~ond-g'rowth hardwoods, the ruffed
grouse is the most important game bird. 'rhe g'rotlse has been benefited
by the a<'fluisitioll of more than Vi7,OOO a('r('s in 24 areas, by eight
States, and by developmental projects conclUded hy ];1 States.
43
Six States have carried out investigative projects on these birds.
Studies have bt'en direeted toward determining what forest manage­ment
practices are best for them. These practices are being carried
out wherever practical, partienlarly in eonjunction with measures to
help other forest game. Because of their cyelic nature, low populations
per acre and the high costs of forest manipulation, intensive manage­ment
for grouse alone cannot be justified.
Habitat improvements in the form of timber management have bet'll
the most logieal approaeh. New York, Conneetieut, and New Hamp­shire
have undertaken the pstablishment of smallel('arings, the release
of food-bearing tr(,es, and the thinning of d(mse timber stands to allow
herbaeeous ground eover to IW(,OlllC repstablished. Planting (·lumps
of conifers whpre such speeies are lacking has provi<ipd necessary
winter cover. Timber management for deer and turkeys has, in many
instances, benefited the ruffed grouse.
Michigan has been coneentrating on census and adult-immature age
ratios as a means of settillg proper seasons and bag limits. Unlike
other States, Michigan has an open season on ruffed grouse every year,
regardless of the stage of the cycle. Information gathered by that
State indicates that the length or time of the hunting season, and the
number of hunters has very little effeet on the ruffed grouse popula­tion.
Conneeticut has approached the management of this bird in a dif­ferent
manner. They haw bpen studying the !'ff(·et of fon'st el!'aring-s
on the abnndanee of ground inse(~t lift'. Their findings show that the
inst'et populations in eh'an'd arl'as are about double that in natural
forest COWl'. An ample supply of inst'ds is esst'ntial to YOllng grouse
during the first few we('ks after they are hatdlPd sin('e they require Il
high protein diet.
Maine has made a study of the forest typ<'s preferred for nesting .
.'Jow they are in a position to recomnH'nd forest managenH'nt pl'adi('('s
that will favor this bird.
Prairie Crouse
Sharp-tailed and pinnated grouse have bepn hclped from aeqUlsl­tions
involving l1('arly ;{2,000 aer!'s on 20 ar!'as in fOllr Stat('s, and -1-2
(leveloplllental projPets in 11 Stah·s.
New Mexico has had 11 a(·quisition project." for prairie ehi('kens
uuder which 18,627 aer!'s of land have be('n pllt·(·hased. 'fwelve de­velopmental
projeds for improving- tht'se lands hllve b(~en in opera­tion.
The work ineluded f!'nl'ing, planting of tr!'!'s and shrllbs, and
plowing fire-breaks. Population surveys were lIlade after tlw 1 !J-1-H
brl'eding' season. l:<'avorable findings en(,ollrag'(~d thc State to deelal'l'
the first open season sinee 1!);~4. New Mexieo sportsmen had a most
satisfactory hunt with an ample supply of birds being left for future
produetion. 'fhe r('sults of the hunting are (·on(·lnsive proof of the
benefits of these restoration activities.
A study of old burns in relation to sharp-tailed grouse abundan(·\'
in Michigan led technicians to try experimental burning to hold baek
forest invasion and !'nc(mrage creation and rl'tention of shrubby and
open areas so ne('essary to this bird.
Studies in at least eight Stat!'s have been (~OIl(llld('d Oil t}wse two
44
g'rouse spel·ies. Through these efforts much has been learned about
the factors affecting' them. Better census techniques have made it
possible to measure the results of management practices.
Sage Crouse
Although the sage grouse is now a species of minor importance,
restoration efforts by eight western States have been benefieial. Ac­quisitions
for alltl'lope alld prairie dli('k<'IIS, as well as some purehases
primarily for this specips of gTOllS(" luwe made more range available.
I{estoration 1IJ('asnrt's ilwilldp f(,lwing', dl'vplo])IlH'llt of watt'ring sitt's,
!'ange rt~V\'g\'tatioll alld !'l'st(wkillg. \Vyolllillg' has trapped alit! trans­plallt('<
l lI('arly 2,100 of tlt(·S(·. hil'ds, alHl ~Iolltalla 2-1-G.
Colorado, Montana, Oregon, \Yyollling, allll the Dakotas have eon­duded
studi('s to dett'I'lllille distribution and abundance of sage hens
as first steps toward bt'ttf'r lIlanag·ellH'llt. Or('goll fonnd that ravens
are the most im(lo[·tant jll'('dators Oil grouse cg-g-s. 011 two similar
study at'('as, olle with ra\'('lls ('olltl'olI('d and the otl1<'r with no (·(mtrol.
the etfpd of mWll pr('datioll was startlillg'. On the raven-eontrolled
area, the Il('sting SUe('l'SS was G 1.2 ]H'I'('(,llt; Oil the one where ravens
w('['e lIn('ontrolI('d, ollly G.:> l)('r('(,lIt of til<' Ill'sts W(,I'(' Sl\('(·('ssfnl.
Hungarian Partridge
The IIlIng-IlI'ian pal'tridg-t', an ('xoti(, of I('ss illlpo!'taw'p allti with It
lIIore I'(~strid('<l range than the l'illg--Il('(·k('d phl'asant, is a vaillable
g-allle bird ill portions of the no['tI\('1'1l plaills ~tates and tlw .;-.JOl'tl!­Wl'st.
This SIW('il's has sltal'('ti ill IH'II('tits from dt"'l'lopnll'nts 1'01' ottH'I'
IIplalld gallle wit.hin its I'allg-l'. II II II I.mriall pa['tl'idg'l's are ('sselltially
hi I'ds of tllP op('n ('Ollllt['y. j ,allds Stl pportillg- HIP It ig-lll'st population
ill !\orth i\.1lIl'I'i('a (',lI! 1)(' g'l'n('rall~' dps'·I·ib('<l as open p['ail'ie type
when' slllall g-raill fal'millg- pl'pdoJllillat('s. \Vh('I'(~ this type borders
woodl'd ar('as, the birds ar'e lliOd('I'ah'ly Stl('('('ssful ill tlH' olltel' fringe.
Trav('lillg- ('ast frollt the \\'('stpl'n prail'il's illto tlw woodpd s(~(·tions of
Mi lllH'sota, for ('x alii pIe, Oil!' filltl~ I1111l),!'(lrian par'tridg'e fairly (,0111-
ilion where woods O(,('UP," about ~ii I)('['('('nt of tl\(' total arl'Cl. The
birds be('ollie s('are(~ to abs('nt wtwn :>0 !ll'I'l'('llt or 11101'(' of the land is
tilllb('r(~d. 'l'lw birds like wpll-sod(!t,d, Ilattlntl g!'llSS fOl' lH'sting, alld
f('w of tlw "Htlll" lH'stS al'p fotlnd in (·tlltivat('d fil'lds.
lI('avy prp('ipitation dtll'illg- til<' l'l'iti"lti r<~pl'odtldion [ll'l'iod is prob­ably
t1w prinei pal fador I illl it.ing- 1It1llgarian partridge ilWl'eases.
Prolollg-l'd rains ('at 1St' Iwav,V lI('st loss('s. Chilling' and lIIt1dballillg' on
Iwaks and fl'l't of yOllng- ('hi('ks at'(' I'('spollsibip for substantial brood
losses dtlring ('old, wd w('atll<'r. Parasitism by a 1Il'llIatode WOl'ltl lllay
I'('sult in t['PIl\('IHlollS die-otfs alIlOIlg- YOllllg bil't!s tinder eOllditions
(·aused by IlPavv rainfall.
III '}1 i ;l!Iesoh~ it was fOlllld that t hI' If tlllg'lll'ian partridge nesting­season
pxt<'ll(ls ()V(,I' an H-\\,('pks' Iwriorl, with 0\'('[' !)() pcrecllt of tl]('
IlPsts Lpg-ull dUI'illg- a IWl'iod of six \\'(,('ks. A It.houg-h the avera:.re dlltdl
size was qllit!' hig-h (1.J..7 ('g'g-s) , til<' !lullg-at'ian pat'tridgc is lllueh
l('st-; sl\('('('ssful at 1'(,II('St.illg- than is th(' rillg--Ilpeked plwusant. 'rhc
1I('still).!: s('aSOIl of the !lulIg-al'iall par·tridge (eig'ht w('('ks) as eompared
with tlw rillg"-IH,('k('d ph('asant (Hi \\'('('ks) llIakf's the formel' far more
\' III 1](' rub]p to the df('ds () f ('old, \\'d Il('~t i II,~ s('aSOllS.
Pheasants often lay eggs in Hungarian partridge nests in regions
where both speeies are eommon and especially when nesting eover is
s('aree. In one sueh area in ~1innesota, those anties ('ansed the aban­dOllment
and subsequent loss of 60 Iwn'pnt of all II lIngarian partridge
llt'sts nnder observation.
The Ameriean method of hunting' disl'l'iminates against the young,
slower-flying' birds and allows a large proportion of old birds to escape.
The result is vigorous fighting among: adult malfs in an attempt to
dffend larg'e nesting territorit's (whi('h in }linnesota had an average
radius of 300 yards) and the produetion of fewer birds per unit area,
1 n England where high popnlatiolls of this bird are maintaine(l
through intensive malHlgpment, evpry ('/fort is ma(le to shoot old birds
to redllee fi(yhtiu" amon" nestincr pairs thus inereasiIl<r uestinc~ density
and produ:tiou."" The obvions ~olutiOl'l to this situation wOl~ld be t"o
p(hwate the hllutfrs and establish game rfgnlatiolls which would
('oneentrate hunting pressure on the older birds.
'l'hrough stoekillg programs, tpmporary population build-ups have
been obtained in !,pnnsylYania, Ohio, 11iehigan, and 1finnesota. In
thpse ('asps the inereases were of short duration and Sllbsl'qlWllt at­tPl1lpts
to rppstablish thp birds havp fail('(1. 1"01' t'xaIuph., P('lllisylvania
found an HO pen'pnt dp('rpase in one year's time of a populatioll for­merly
llllnwrons enou~h to jllstify a hunting' spason. In Michigan
the planted birds had a h'lld('lley to spread Ollt over wide areas as
though tryiIl~ to find suitable livin~ quartprs - instalH:l's of move­nwnts
of 5 to 9 miles within a few ll10nths wpre l'ecortil'(l.
Idaho ll'ads in live-trapping' and transplanting of this speei('s, hav­ing'
l1lowd 92-t- birds to suitable bllt va('ant habitat in the sOllt/wastpl'Jl
anti ('(,!ltral parts of the Stat!'. The partri(l~e has n,(,t'ivl'd illlpol'tallt
assistanee from s!'vt'n projeds in fOllr States.
Chukar Partridge
N evalla trapped and transplalltcd !)2G wil(l Chllkar' pal'tridgl's in
19-t-7, on its first Pittman-l{ob{'rtson pl'ojel't. Short hnntin~ seasons
were permitted in that State in 1947 and 1 !J48. Both adiol1s were 011t­standin~,
l'onsidering the many failures in the past 25 y{'ars to g'd,
this l'xotic ('stablished eIRpwhl'l'l' in thp United States. Spf'dal:ular
ill('I'l'aSes in the population of tiwse fl'atlwred Orientals have shown up
in a lOO-mile strptt'h of eoulltry rUllnill~ llorth frolll Yakima, \Vash­ington.
Chukars are holding their own in the OW('IIS Valley and
Mojav{' ])('sert of southern California, and ar(~ showill~ C1wonraging
si!!ns of boosting r{'produdion into hig'h gear HOO miles away, ill north­eastern
California. \Vild ('ovcys, from prior plantings of pell-l'eal'cd
birds, have been lo('atl'd in A rizona and SOllll' other wpstern States.
The Chukar partridge has finally sl'rateh{'d out a real toe-hold ill
America. But the variety we have here - OIle of 22 of a single speei('s
with a natural rang-e ('xtpndin~ from Mongolia to the Atlantie, in
Asia, Europe and North Africa - is adapted to low-rainfall eonntl'Y
with plenty of steep rocky slopes.
Doves
Mourning- doves, white-win~p(l d()Y('s, and hand-taih~d pig'(~ons lwve
all been subjeds of l"ederal Aid projel'ts.
4G
':\fonrning doves have been studied in a number of the southeastern
:-ltates where they are an important game spedes. Beeause of their
lIligratory nature and more or less solitary habits, it is impractical to
carry out development work primarily for them. However, they are
benefiting from other developments, snch as farm ponds, farm game
habitat restoration, and refuge areas. In Missouri, for example, a
dfwided increase of doves was observed arollnd farm ponds.
White-winged doves have been studied extensively in the southern
seetions of Arizona and Texas. Land aequisitions and subsequent
management in southwest Arizona are eontributing to habitat stabil­ity
by proteeting the birds from fires and dearing operations. Texa.,> ,
white-wings are suffering from land dearing activities and studies
have shown that one of the best immediate management aids would
be the acquisition of suitable nesting areas along the lower Rio Grande
river bottoms.
Nest predation by grackle:') in Texas is very serious and it alone is
('lItting breeding' success in half. Control teehniques are being studied
in the hopes of reducing' these losses.
Band-taih'd pig-POllS arr b('ing stll<iit'd ill t~()l()rado wlH're the popu­lations
have dropped sharply in r('('ent years.
Clapper Rail
The ('lapper rail or n:arsh IH'n has r(,(~pived little attpntion in the
past. Georgia is now making a detailt'd stlldy of its habits and rc­(
luiremputs. rndi('atiom; are that eOllsiderable call' be done for these
birds throngh habitat improvrment and proper protection. New ,Jer­sey
ha.'> llIade some valllable observations on this spel'il's in the tidal
marshl's of that Rtate.
Woodcock
'I'he woodeoe];: IS another sp('cies that needs further mallage!11('ut
studv. Massaehusrtts is the onlv State that has earried on Pittman­Rob(~
rtsou work with this sjwl·i(:s. However, it has reeeived eonsider­able
study in other States independent of the 1<'ederal Aid program.
Aeqnisitions for waterfowl and deer have, in many instances, pro­vided
ex('ellt'nt nesting habitat for the" timber doodle."
Cottontail Rabbit
The t'ottontail, being a farm game species of outstanding importall<~e
in most of the eastrrn lTnitt'd States, has bet'n helped by many habitat
f('storation projed.s. Almost without exception, this work has bene­fited
phpasants or quail as wpll as rabbits. Such improvements as
f('neillg, planting trl~l'S and shrubs, and speding herbaceous plants on
small isolatf'<i or Noded parts of farms have eontributed food and
housing for eottontails. The ('stablishment of Illultiflora rose hedge­rows
and the sep(ling of ll'spedeza field borders have made habitable
othl'rwise barrl'Il sites. Thirty-two states are engagf'd in habitat res­toration
in ('.ooperation with soil ('onservation distril'ts, landowners,
and other <;onsprvation agencil's. Indiana has establishl'd more than
1,200 wildlife prodnrtion nnits whi('h also provide badly needed seed
sf(wk r!'fngps in that heavily huntf'd State. Rr('(mt inv('stigations of
t1H'se I('ased and impro\'<'(i game salldnaries rev('all'd that nearly !)O
H
J ~
Ii,'
It
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i
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I':
IWrl'E'nt of them wpre getting heavy nse frolll ('ottolltails alld other
farm game spel'if's (Figurf's 22 a and b).
Maryland, l\1iehi~.mll, Ohio, and Penlls.vlvania have iU\'f'sted Pitt­llIan-
Hobf'rtson funds in many land pnrehase projeds for the cr('ation
of refuges and malUlg'f'ment arf'as. Frequently, these pnrchases con­sisted
of abandonf'd or submarginal farms. On('f' in State ownership,
the lands Wf'rf' g'i\'f'n devl'lo)ll1lf'ntal and malUlg'Plllcnt treatment.
\Voody ('oVf'r plantings, herbal"Pons spedlings and the application of
good soil eOllsf'rvation farm plans have produced gratifying results.
For example, the Oldakpr \Vildlife ManagenlPnt Arf'a in Ohio was
purehas('(l aJ1(1 th(,11 <\('\'('101)('(1 by tr('(" shrnb and I('sl)('(kza plantings.
A soil bnilding and eonservillg ('ro)) rotation, ('ombilwd with liming
and ff'rtilizing, was applipd to the ('roplall<\s. Heepnt illVf'stigatiolls
revf'aled three eottontails pf'r IV're. On this same area, squirrf'ls in­l'l'f'ased
to five per aerp, and tlw SlllllnH'r n!'sting popnlation of hob­whitf's
was one bird to five ;ter('s.
Ohio, New .Jersf'Y, l\ew York, .\Iisso1l1'i, }lil'iliglln, and p('llllsyl­vania
have ('OlHlnf'tpd fif'ld illv('stigatiolls to find Ollt how to hetter
manage their ('ottontails. Throngh hllnt!'!· ('h('('ks, (Ihio I(,fll'lled the
rf'lative importan('(' of til!' (·ottontails in til(' Stat(~ as a whole, and in
whieh parts thf'Y \Y('rf' most important. I,'rolll data obtailH'd in lfl .. Hi
('ornparpd with similar figllJ'('s for 1~I:l2 alld l!l:l:l, it was fOllnd that.
th(' hunter Sll('('('ss ratio had tak(,ll a big: dl'op-().fi ntbbits w('re bag'g(~d
per hnnter in 1!H6, as ('ompal'pd to 1:1,4 and 11.!) for 1!):l2 and 1fl:1:1
reslwetiwly. Th('se figurl's I'ptl('<'fl'd tIl(' dllal intlll('II('(' of shl'inking
habitat and inrr("ased huntillg 1)1'('ssllrl'.
~Iissollri is annllfllly snpplyillg' approxilllat('ly onl' lIlillion l'otton­tails
to Hw m("at trade and trallsplanting' st(wk to I'astl'l'n Statps. This
does not inl'lnd(' IOt'al sportsman kill whi('h I'IIIlS into tlw millions. To
kt't'p tlwir fing'ers on the ))Illsl' of this vahrable rl'SOIll'('(" Pittman­Hobrrtson
illVPstigators a!'!' assignpd the task of invl'ntor?ing rabbit.
populations pf'riodi('all? and k('('pin,!.!: r('('ords of tlw ('nornlOus harvest.
\Vith sneh information on tap, til!' Stat(· ('olls(,I'yation D('partmpnt. is
in a position to pnllwrly mallag'p this !'('solln'(' withollt. endangering'
hi:rh prodnl'tiyity in the flit II 1'('.
Hf'sf'arl'h findings (lis!'!os(·(l that in til<' ",('st-('Plltral and sOIlt.hwpst­f'rn
parts of Missouri, where 12Tl'at. lllllllbl'rs of rabbits art' killed hy
hunters for sport. or handle(l ('OlllIlH·rl'iaJl.y, tlw ('ottontail popnlat.io]Js
have bef'n maintainf'(l at high Ipv('ls ollly b('('anse the earrying ('apae­it?
of the lallds IWl'lllittp(l it. This has b(,!'ll dllc leu'gel? t.o the ('/forts
of landowners. Cottontails are OIl<' of tiwi I' ('ash (~rops. Intl'rvi('ws
with 512 farnwr-t.ntpP(·I'S in Cl'lltral .\;1 iSSOllI'i dis(')os('d that. tlH',\' 11'('1'('
maintaining ('over ('onditions to ('n('Ollrag'e til(' produdioll of rabbits.
Th(' l1Iedium-fertil(· soils of th(' w('st.-('l'lItml and sOllthw('stprn part.s
of the State pro"i(l(' the l)('st rabbit nlllg'('. ;-JOl'tiWl'll Missollri is g'Pll­('
rally low in ('ottontail d(,llsit~· IH'(·;WS(' lalld-llse ('hal1g'('s hav(~ l'limi­nated
llllH'h of the formerl.Y ahllndallt. food and ('over.
High populations of rabbits ('all h(' lllailltailH'd by wis(~ land mall­agf'mE'nt.
In )"<liRsollri it has h('('11 fOllnd that larg'E' nllmbf'rs of them
serve as an important hllff(' I', aidillg lIlatl'rialJ.v in th(' rl'dlwtioll of
predator damage to pOlllt.t'.v. For this J'('aSOll 1I11111,V fal'llwrs are in-
-is
Figures 22a and b. The above pasture was virtually a wildlife desert in 1941. due to
intensive grazing. It was fenced in 1941, protected from livestock and planted to trees,
shrubs and herbaceous cover. Within a year quail, pheasants, rabbits, raccoons, and
squirrels were observed utilizing the area. Below is a view of the same area taken in
1948. It is now a fine haven for wildlife. Photos by H. P. Cottingham, Indiana Conser­vation
Department.
,
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terested in the encouragement of the cottontail. Recommended rabbit
management practices in Missouri, to produce sustained yields of
cottontails, consist of piling brushy cover in eroding draws, prevent­ing
overgrazing, planting of food and cover in spots where it is
needed, and refraining from cutting or burning cover where its
presence does not interfere with farming.
~ew York is one of the customers for Missouri cottontails. These
imports are bring used to rppopulate (lppletPtI ranges. Pittman-Hob­t'rtson
firld men art' stndying sOllie of these releasps to learn whether
thpy arc aetually producing results ('ommpnsurate with the eosts in­Yolved.
Th{~ final rpsults of this study will help mold future rabbit
sto('king polici(~s in thp Empil'(~ State.
'fhl' dpcline of introdm'('u eottoutails was studi(~d on an island in
~ew York. Laeking ground prpdators, tl1(> ntbbit popUlation sky­roeketed.
Attempts to rt'<luee tlwm by shooting and the paYllH'nt of
bountips wpre lUlSUl'('pssflli. Following 1ll0dpl'atp rpduetion by wintt'r
stan'ation, eonsi(l(,ntblp llIortal it,\, il('('Om paniP(l by til'k ill fpstation
oc('urrpd. Tpchllieians <ldermilwd that losses l'l'snlted frolll ti('k­induepd
alwlllia or badprial infpdioIlS. "\d(litiollal loss('s allIOHg' .in­ypnill'
rabbits Ol'('lIlTpd ",h('u th('y \\"('r(~ abandollPd by si('k ot· dying
parelltal females.
Hestoeking ('ottolltails dlll'illg a :W-Y('a!' Iwriod in P('nnsyh'allia (litl
not produce larger shooting populatiolls. 'l'lw lIIain l'('asolt for the
failure was that habitat ('ollditions ill tlt(' ~tate ('onld Hot snppm·t
largrr nnmbrrs than w('re alr<'ady PI·pS('lIt. '1'0 ilwrl'ase rabbit pOJlU­lations
it is npl'l'ssar.v to manipnlate the lI111d ill I1lIH'h tl\(~ salll(~ 1l11U1-
ner as a farnwr does to produl'(, gl'patet' ~'iplds of tillahlp ('t·ops.
~t()('king- lands bp,Vo]Hl their ('al·I·.\·illg ('HIHwity is a wastl' of tillll' anel
money.
Mortality stndies in Pennsylvania rl'wale(l that abollt ~() P('I'('l'llt
of ('aeh yrar's young survi\'('d lIntil tlw fall hllllting spason. Tlw};u-k
of summer ('ovpr that ('0111<1 etfpd.iYely protp(·t jllwllile l'ottoutails
from prpdators and inelem('nt w('ather wpre ttl(; (·hipf ('Illlses for this
heavy loss. Llle\{ of adequate slIpplips of wintpr foods w(~re found to
limit populations in some arpas whpn snow was (kpp. The woodehuek,
once cOIIsi(it'rl'd a llllisatH'(" is 1I0W wpll'ollll'd ill eottolltail I'Ollntrv
bl'cause the rabbits usp woodehuek burrows pxt('lIsiypl.v fot' ('s('ar~~
eover.
Squi"els
The gTa~' all(l fox sqnirt,pis Inr(' millions of hnntpl's afipld ('/wlt fall.
Tn faet, these arbol'pal mallllllals milk S(,(,OIl<l ollly to the ('ottontail
rabbit in total Jllllllbpl's harvpstt'd during the OPPII s('asons. \Vhile fl'w
Pittman-Hobertson projpeis have been ulldl'l'tak('n cxdusively for
squirrels, many have eOlltribut{'d major belwfits.
The acquisition of woodlands in Miehig-an, P('nw.;yIYania, Ohio,
West Virginia, and Tpl1IH'ss('p have assured living quarters for th('S(,
seurrying woods dw('llt'rs. Maryland lLeqllired the LeCompt.e \Vildlifn
Demonstration art'a primarily for the Bryant fox squirrel. 'rhe -l,;)OO­aere
Gratiot-Saginaw purehase llnit in l\Iiehig-an aids fox sqnitTl'ls a;;;
wpll as other farm gllllle SIW('i('s. Tit is proj('('t al'l'a is olle of Hi b('illg'
50
acquired in southern Michig-an for farm game. These wildlife units
are managed as combination refug-es and public hunting grounds.
Also serving as demonstration areas, illduded croplands are farmed
according to plans that incorporate wildlife benefits. Developmental
activities include transplanting of trees and shrubs, establishment of
herbaceous cover, erection of nest and den boxes, and removal of un­necessary
fences.
Farm game habitat projeds in Ohio, Indiana, Maryland, and Penn­sylvania
have benefited squirrels by dosing woodlots to pasturing,
('rel,tion of nesting boxrs, planting of corn, and the establishment of
rpfuges.
Arizona has done most of the trapping' and transplanting, having
moved 543 Abert squirrels to yaeant but suitable forested lands.
Squirrel studies in several states have been very important in point­ing
the way to better management. For ('xamplp, Michigan found that
th(' lllast supply is the key to squirrel prodmtiyity the following year
and for('('a."ts of future abulldame ean be made on this basis. Mixed
stands of timber, ('specially the various Ulast producers, are much
b('tter than pure stands of one speeirs breanse they act as an illsur­Hllee
against crop failures. Seabil's Illite, one of the worst squirrel
killNs, was fonnd to b(~ at its p('ak in late winter whell" food was in
short supply or at any time WhPll the animals are in low physical con­dition.
It rarely beeame serious (luring- ypars of food abundance. In
making bag cheeks it was fonnd that an excellent breeding season
rpsulted in about two-thirds of thp kill being young squirrels. Under
poor brreding conditions young animals taken dropped to as low as 25
pereent.
Studirs in Indiana, minois, and Michig-an have shown that squirrel
hunting srasons during the latp summer lllouths arr IlOt good manage­lllPllt.
\Vhil(' the quality of the Illrat wa;; pX('l'llent because of the
high prrcentag-e of young- animals takrn, th(· Illlmbrr of pregnant and
ladating f('mal('s killed, togethrr with tIl(' loss of nnrsing young in
tllP 11rl';ts, gT<'atly 1'1'<111<'('<1 pro<1l1dion the following ."<,ar. Open sea­SOilS
l'OIllI1l<'Jl<'illg IIOt parlirr than S('pt(,llIb('r have b!'('ll r('('oml11rn<1ed
in these statf's.
Varying Hare
The varying har!', or sllowsho!' rabbit, furnish('s eOllsiderable hunt­ing
in thl' northpastern and north ('entml stat('s. Altho1lg-h 110 restora­tion
work has b('pn 1lJl(jertakl'n primarily for this species, land pur­('
hases alld timber stand improV<'Ill<'llts within their rang-e have
bronght abont bettpr living (~(ll1ditiol1s for the hare.
Til Prunsylvania, SIlr\'('YS showl'd that varying harps w('re present
in snffi('il'llt numb!'rs to afford good hunting 011 State Game IJands.
Although J.;-'(·drral Aid personnel have determined that the hare has
b('pn all but anllihilated in OI1P area in Vermont, the population for
the State, as a whole, is at prrsfmt snffieiently large to prrmit hunting.
Studies in th(' propagation, habits, and mver preferences of the vary­ing
hare have been eondlwt('(l in New Hampshire to Iparn what types
of forest mallipnlation to reeommend.
H('('OIllHlissaJw(' SIll'Y('YS Ita ve been made in New York to determine
:)1
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the relative abundance and extent of the hare population in that
State. and 139 potential release areas have been loeated, surveyed, and
classified according to known habitat requirements. Some investiga­tions
of the breeding habits of the hares have been earried on at New
York's Delmar Gam-e Farm. However, attempts by the State to raise
these animals on their game farms in sufficient numbers for release
purposes have not been sueeessfui. Areas to be supplied with hares
with a view to re-establishing the animal in the various sections of the
State must, at present, be stocked by live-trapping and releasing
native wild animals.
Studies of various liberation techniques and how to identify re­leased
hares were made in New York. The most satisfactory method
for learning the results of restocking has been the dipping or tying
off of the end joint of one toe on the hind foot of these animals which
results in a traek dearly distinguishable from the normal. Studies
made on Valcour Island, New York, during HJ46 showed a marked
decline in the hare population. Diseases and parasites of this species
are being investigated. From previous field and pathological work
('ondueted in 1943-H it has been eonl'luded that the range on Val­('
our Island was hpavily seedc(l with harp lungworms and that juvenile
hares ,vere pieking np infestations at an parly age. Further studies
are being made to dptermine the <'xtent f0 whieh these hmgworms
may reduee hare populations.
Raccoon
The rae coon interests two groups: the dyed-in-the-wool 'coon hunt­ers
who enjoy the ehase with hounds, and the trapper who is out to
make some pxtra cash by pelting the animals. In recent years the
demand for raccoon fur has not been ~mfficient to encourage any ap­preciable
interpst in trapping. In many cases this has resulted in
population build-ups and growing complaints of crop damage and
predation.
In marsh areas these sly rin!ztails often do considprable damage to
muskrats. Louisiana, for l'Xamplp, rpported raccoons following trap
lines and damaging as many as 20 pprl'eut of the 'rat.<;. Pelts on half
the carcass!:'s w!:'re so torn up as to make th!:'m worthl!:'88 and the
remainder broug-ht only 15-20 (·pnts e,wh. 'rhus, a $1.00 raccoon may
damage $4.00 to $6.00 worth of muskrats in one night. Similar losses
were reported from Texas marshes adjoining levees or areas support­ing
heavy raccoon populations.
In Michigan it was fonnd that the pssentials of an optimum raccoon
range were a pprmaJwnt wat!:'r supply, tree dens, and food. Artifi­l'ial
f!:'eding was not advised, though eorn might be of value when
mast crops fail. Raeeoons apparently prefer to dpn in flood-plain
situations and it is there that the first management efforts should be
stressed. Where tree cntting ean be controlled, investigators recom­mpnded
that at least one and possibly two den trees per 15 to 20 acres
be left standing, plus about two or three times that many potential
denning sites. :Michigan also experimented with drn boxes in places
where tree dens were in short supply. During a 10-month period, 10
out of 25'of these dt'n boxes were used by raceoons.
The dosure of one study area in 11iehigan appeared responsible for
52
a 17 percent inrrease in raccoons in one year. However, sanctuaries
were not considered generally necessary in the State, except to give
low populations in depleted areas a chance to build Up. Artificial
propagation has been foun