Fishes of the Middle West.

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FROM HOME -WA"YERS /iJL ..

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Dos. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVIClE

Conservation Bulletin 34

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The waters of the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes

are a potential source of several hundred million pounds of

food in the form of tasty lake and river fishes. This rich

resource of the inland waters is important to a nation at

war. Because of the growing meat shortage, people will

eat more fish than in pre-war years. In the interior of the

country, people will eat more fresh-water fish than before,

because fish are good and nutritious and because, in the

coming months, the shipments of rosefish, halibut, shrimp,

and other seafoods that come to them from the Atlantic,

Pacific, and Gulf coasts may be curtailed.

Among the scores of fishes native to the Mississippi and

the Great Lakes are many excellent food fishes, some of

them little known even in the States that produce them in

greatest quantity. These fishes, if known and properly

used, will add variety to wartime meals and health-giving

proteins, minerals, and vitamins to the diet. This publica-tion

has been written to acquaint the people of the Middle

. West with their native food fishes as individual species

differing in their food qualities, their adaptability to

various methods of preparation, and their seasons of

availability.

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Conservation Bulletin 34

Fishes

OF THE

Middlevvest

BY

RACHEL L. CARSON.

Aquati(l Biologist

Fish and' Wildlife Service

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Harold L. Ickes, Secretary

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

Ira N. Gabrielson, Director

"psg .ofland Management

v .. Ubrary

. DenWr. Service Center {

...,. CONTENTS

Page

Chubs - --- - - -'- __ - - ----- - _

Lake trout; --- __. -- _

Pikes . "," - _ .

Yellow perch - -- ~.

Pike perches ~-

Crappies ---------------~----------- _

Bluegill sunfish ~ ~ _

Blbliogra phy _'___':' _---- - - -_ - - - -- -- _- .--- - -------

Introduction .-------------------__ _______ ____ 1

Fish have a high nutrttive value .: ·________________ 2

General guides for selecting' and preparing fish ..:.___ 4

Flow to buy ~-------------____ 4

VVhen to buy ~------------------------------------____ 4

Common nlarket forms --- 4

Canned fish . 5

Salt <;)1> smoked fish_________________________________________________ 5

Fat content of fish ~------ 5

Sauces and garnishes ..:_______________________________________ 6'

Available supplies of fish in midwestern waters___________________________ 6

Seasonal vartations in the market supply __ ..:. --:-----~ 6

Biographies of midwestern fishes . -:- -.,:-__ 9

Carp '_ -., ,..-., 9

Buffalofishes ,.. ~ .12

Suckers :-.-__~ :-'-__-: :-__,_ 15

Catfishes and bullheads '-------------- 17

She~I?she~d ,..-:...----,--:--:-..:-":'---,---.~-~~--~,..----;-------------,--:- ' 20

Smelt :- ._-:- .___ __ 22

..' Burbot ---- __~ , " .' ~ '_ . 25

Bowfin --- '_ ..;,..-------:----::-- ~_____________ 27

Gars or gal: pikes ~ ~ ~ ..: ~ ~'__ 28

Whitefish ., ~ ~_. .,__~ ., '-' ., ~-------- 30

Lake herring .,.-- .; ---~ .:. ~______________________ 33

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35

37

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40

41

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44

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UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. WASHINGTON· 1943

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. ••.• Price IS cents

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FOOD FROM HOME WATERS

The Middle West takes its native fishes from a vast system of

waterways-the 2,500 miles of the Mississippi from its headwaters in

northern Minnesota to its mouth in the Gulf, the tens of thousands

of miles of tributary streams that find their way to the Mississippi,

the five Great Lakes, and the thousands of lesser waters ranging from

the borderline lakes of Minnesota to the smallest farm ponds of the

South. More than thirty kinds of food fishes are found in these

waters. They are a rich and varied aquatic bill of fare: delicious

whitefish from Huron and" Superior, tasty smelt from the lakes or

from cold Michigan streams, the richly fIavored channel catfish from

the swift rushes of the Mississippi, delicate panfish like the perches,

crappies, and sunfishes, as well asa score or mQT~of other fishes,

many of them familiar but others almost -unknown even to the people

of the regions that produce them.

Many of the fishes native to the Mississippi Valley. and the lake

.region enjoy a Nation-wide reputation among those who 'appreciate

good food. Wherever it appears, on the menu.s of famous restaurants

or in private dining rooms, the whitefish is rated one of the most

delicious of fishes. ' Smelt taken from beneath the ice of Lake Michi- '

gan are rushed eastward to the people of New York, Boston, and other

eastern cities. Also widely known and highly regarded are broiled

lake trout and smoked herring. Less familiar except in scattered

communities are the excellence of certain recipes for creating a savory

,dish from the catfish, the tastiness of a carp taken' from dear, cold

waters and properly prepared, or the fish chowders which rank as epi-'

curean dishes. . , .

The fishery resources of the Middle West yield more thalli 140 mil-lion

pounds. of food a year. This figure represents only the commer-cial

catch. To it must be added the large .but unknown poundage

taken by the sportsman and by the hook-and-line fisherman who

brings in a string of perch or crappie for his family's dinner. An-other

unmeasured but substantial crop comes from the private ponds

where farmers raise sunfish, bass, and other fish as a sideline to their

corn, hogs, Wheat, and cattle.

Being widely distributed throughout the region, this food crop of

midwestern waters makes only modest demands on our transportation

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2 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 34

" i system, for almost every community has a fish supply of some sort

within the range of a short truck haul. This is an excellent reason

for eating locally produced fish.

As beef, pork, and lamb grow scarce in domestic markets, fish be-come

more and more important as nutritious and highly acceptable

alternates. This wider use of fish should be a pleasant and health-ful

change in the diet of American households. Real satisfaction

in the use of fish will not be attained, however, until the great variety

and the distinctive qualities of the individual species are under-stood.

Some fish are fat, some lean; some are adapted to the prep-aration

of the substantial main dish of the meal, others to the crea-tion

of salads and appetizers. By varying the method of cooking in

accordance with these characteristics, the natural flavors and tex-tures

are preserved. It is ~o provide an understanding of the indi-vidual

qualities of the fishes of the Middle West that this paper is

written.'

FISH HAVE A HIGH NUTRITIVE VALUE

Most people eat fish because they enjoy their varied flavors and

their adaptability to many different methods of preparation: There

are further benefits from eating aquatic food, however, for fish are

good natural sources of'calcium, phosphorus, iron, and copper, and

provide protein of unexcelled quality. ""Some"'species also furnish

vitamins in appreciable quantities and sea fish are rich in iodine.

Fish are an important source of proteins, a type of food which

must be included in the diet to provide the elements needed to grow

and repair worn-out body tissues. Some proteins are complete in that

they supply all of the elements needed; others are incomplete and

must -be supplemented with other protein foods .if'fhe body is to

remain in normal health. Fish proteins, like those in beef, pork,

and other meats, are complete in themselves and proteins of this

type should supply about one-third of the daily protein requirement.

Fish are an excellent source of most ot- the minerals which the

body needs to develop properly and perform its functions. Calcium

and phosphorus (without which proper development of bones arid

teeth is impossible) occur in fish fillets in about the same quantities

as in beef round. Marine fishes are especially rich sources of iodine,

containing 50 to 200 times as much of this essential element as any

other food. Oysters, shrimp, and crabmeat, compared with milk, pro-vide

half as much calcium, five times as much magnesium, and slightly

more phosphorus. Iron and copper, which build up the hemoglobin

1Several photographs reproduced in this bulletin were made available through the cour-tesy

of the Detroit News, the Detroit Free Press, the Michigan Department of Conservation,

and the Wisconsin Department of Conservation.

I

FOOD FROM HOME WATE~S 3

content of the blood and prevent or remedy nutritional anemia, are

easily obtained by eating most fish. Oysters and shrimp are the

best known sources of these two-minerals.

12,D.24

Figure 1.-"Main Street" in a Great Lakes fishing village.

Although fish-liver oils have long been recognized as first-class

sources of vitamins A and D,. it is less widely known that the flesh

of fish is also a source of several vitamins. On the average, daily

4 CONSERV ATWN BULLETL"N" 34

..~

vitamin requirements could be obtained from ordinary serving pOl'·

tions of fish to the following extent: vitamin A, 10 percent; vita-min

D, more than adequate amounts; thiamin (vitamin B1), 15 per-cent;

riboflavin (vitamin B2) and nicotinic acid (another element

of the vitamin B complex), 70 percent.

GENERAL GUIDES FOR SELECTING AND PREPARiNG FISH

How to buy.-Insist upon freshness. A fresh fish may be recog-nized

by the following: firm and elastic flesh, scales that cling to

the skin in most species, reddish gills free from disagreeable odor,

eyes bright and full, not sunken. In selecting shellfish like clams

and oysters, be sure that the shells are tightly shut, indicating that

the animals are alive, unless you prefer to buy the meat separately

as shucked shellfish. Crabs and lobsters should be bought alive or

as cooked meat. However, uncooked shrimp may be bought in the

shell provided it feels firm to the touch; Cooked shrimp is sold

either with or without the shell, with the heads already removed.

When to buy.-In general, the fish of any species are of highest

food quality when most abundant, for at these periods fishermen are

making their catches in the shortest time and shipping them promptly.

Usually, but not always, fish are cheapest when most abundant. (See

pages 6 to 9 for information on seasonal changes in the market supplies

of somemidwestern fishes.)

Uornanon market forms.-. Fresh (refrigerated) fish and completely

frozen fish should be equally good if the freezing' is done by the modern

methods now well known to the industry., Both are marketed in a

variety of convenient forms, as follows:

Whole or round fish are those marketed in the form in which they

come from the water, and are of three kinds: fish that keep as well

or better without dressing, small fishes, or the small sizes of larger

species. Before cooking, whole or round fish are eviscerated, and in

all but the very small sizes, the heads, scales, and sometimes the fins '

are removed.

Drawn fish are those marketed with only the entrails removed. To

prepare these fish for cooking, the heads, scales, and (if desired) the

fins are removed, and the fish may be split or cut into serving portions

if too large to be cooked whole.

Dressed fish have had the head and entrails removed and the tail

and fins may be cut off. If dressed fish are large, they may be cut

into pieces in preparation for cooking.' Very large dressed fish are

sometimes marketed in pieces.

Steaks are slices (usually about half an inch thick) cut across a,

.)arge dressed'fish.

FOOD -FROM HOME WAT~,R<S 5

Fillets are meaty slices cut lengthwise from the sides of the fish.

Fillets contain no bones or other waste. Their weight varies with

the size of the fish from which they are cut.

Sticks are crosswise or lengthwise cuts offillets.

12,82

figure 2.-Po'und 'nets take large' quantities of whitefish, lake trout, herring, suckers, and

• ' pike perches;

Ooavned {ish.-Besides the universally familiar canned salmon, tuna,

and sardines, many kinds offish arecanned for use in' main' dishes,

salads, and appetizers. For the duration of the' war, however, the

amount of canned, fish available for civilians will be considerably less

than normal.

Salt or smoked fish.-Tasty variations in the menu are provided by

salt or smoked fish. Salt fish ordinarily requiresone-hal£ to several

hours' soaking before, further preparation; while smoked fish usually

is ready to eat as it is, or may be-heated.

Fat content of fV8h.-For best results in preparing a fresh fish, it

is always desirable to know whether it is fat or lean. Fat fish are

especially suitable for baking, and may also be broiled, while lean fish

are best adapted to steaming, boiling, and frying. Medium-fat fish

are prepared like the lean, or maybe dressed with strips of salt pork

or bacon' and baked. Most cook books classify fish as follows:

· Fat fish are those containing more than 5 percent fat. Examples

are catfish, herring, and-lake trout.

Medium-fat fish are those containing from 2 to 5 percent fat. Ex-amples

are smelt and perch. .

530548°--43----2

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6 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 34

Lean fish are those containing less than 2 percent fat. Examples,

are sheepshead, pike, and carp.

Sauces and garnishes.-The attractiveness of almost any dish con-sisting

of fish will be increased greatly by the use of sauces that subtly

enhance or complement the flavor. Any good cook book contains

excellent suggestions as to the choice and preparation of such sauces.

Fresh and colorIui garnishes also do much to create a dish as pleasing

to the eye as to the palate, thereby whetting the appetite and helping

to make the serving of fish a pleasurable and often repeated experience.

AVAilABLE SUPPLIES OF FISH IN MIDWESTERN WATERS

Of the total fish supply from the Mississippi River and the Lakes,

the only part that can be measured with any degree of accuracy is the

commercial catch. While the poundage taken by commercial fisher-men

is presumably the major part of the available supply, it is sup-plemented

by the catch of anglers and by the production of farm fish

ponds. Total yields from the last two sources can only be estimated

at present. Neither are our figures for the commercial catch entirely;

satisfactory, for no complete canvass has been made of the fisheries of

the Mississippi River during the past decade. On the Great Lakes,

the mostrecent complete figures were collected in 1940. The informa-tion

presented in table 1, which records the catch in the Lakes in 1940

and the Mississippi River catch in 1931,is, therefore, only an approxi-mate

indication of the amount of food that may be derived from the

fisheries of this region. Probably it errs on the side of conservatism,

for the intensity of the river fisheries may have increased appreciably

during the past decade.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE MARKET SUPPLY

Fish of a large number of species, either fresh or in the equally good

frozen form, are available at any season. Each species, however, has

a particular period-of one to several months-during which it is

especially abundant in the markets. Ordinarily it is during this sea-sonal

peak that fish reach the market in best condition. This is true

either because fishermen seek fish when they are in their prime (fat-test,

or of best flavor), or for the simple reason that when fish are

plentiful fishermen make their catches quickly and send them to the

markets in the shortest possible time. In buying fish, therefore, it is

helpful to know something of these changes in the market supplies.

Our only source of complete information on the month-to-month

supply of fishes in markets of the Middle West is contained in the

FOOD FROM HOME WATERS 7

reports of the Fishery Market News officeof the Fish and Wildlife

Service in Chicago. The following information is based on these re-ports.

Although applicable in all details only to the Chicago area, it

will give a general picture of the seasonal shifts in the availability of

the various species. .

Table 1.-Production of edible fish and shellfish in the Great Lakes and

the Mississippi River and its tributaries 1

[Expressed in thousands of pounds and thousands of dollars; that is, 000 omitted]

Species Lakes, 1940 Mississippi River and

tributaries, 1931 -~------_._._----------------~ --------- ----------

Black bass .._~..'ISH Quantity Value Quantity14 Value$2

Blue pike__________________________________________________ ii,073 $404 _

Bowfin" .: .._ 6 (2) 428 9

Buffalofish .___________ lii,772 687

BurboL______ 488 6 _

Carp______________________________________________________ ii,998 148 11,892 455

Catfish and bullheads______________________________________ 1,053 90 10,267 878

Chubs , , __________________ _______________________ ____ 2,411 375 _

Ciseo . .._____________ 157 19 _

ECeralsppie ~ ----------.---------------------.-.- ~____________ (2)' 32 (2) 1 471 31

Gars . .. .__. • • _ ____ _____ 73 1

Goldfish .___________ 217 7 _

Lake herring .. .------------------------------ 22,480 486 _ Lake trout , 9,859 1,608 _

Mooneye. -c-------,-_----,-------------- 15 "1 3 (2) Paddlefish '.- ~ ____ __ ___ _____ __ _ 952 43

Pike or piekereL . ----------.--------------------- 220 8 5 (2) ~~~~b.~.=;=~::: =~::~=:=::::::::=:: .. :::::~:: =:=::: ::::::~: --- ------ 20- - - - -----i- :~- ,- __~~

Sauger .-------,-----,----~:---------~ 696 60 2' 1

Sheepshead • __________ _________________ 2,995 61 3,905 143

Smelt____ _____________ _____________ __________________ 4, 209 126 _

Sturgeon ,---------------------------- _ 23 11 _

Sturgeon, shovelnose ' " .. --________ 87 8

Suekers____________________________________________________ 4,399 122 315 13

Sunfish____________________________________________________ 34 1 22 1

Tullibees " ..__ 1,227 52 _

White bass . __~" .. 470 28 3 (2)

WhiteCfiosmh:mon______._'________________________________________ 4,618 735 _

Menominee, ____ ___ _ _____ ____ _____ 101 7 _

i:n~~:r~~~~~_~=,=~=====~================='=====_=========~ ---~;-~~~ ---~-~~ --------------5- --··-----~----i Total_ _ ______________________________________________ 79, 084 5, .621

1===1====1==='1===

3

44,061 2,257

29' (2)

49 4

19 '(2)

94 3

875 131

],066 138

45,127 2,395

SHELLFISH, ETC. Crawfish, __________________________________________________ 3. (2)

Shrimp_ _ _____ __________ ______ ___ __ ______ _ • _

Terrapin • _

Turtles ._ _ _

Frogs .___________________ __ _ _ . _

TotaL _ --- --- ----1-----

Grand. totaL _1===1

(2)

79,087 5; 621

t Data from Fish and Wildlife Service's Current Fishery Statistics No. 27.

2 Less than 500 pounds or dollars.

The winter months are the best time to buy carp and chubs. Of

these species it seems to 1>etrue that the colder the water, the better

the fish. In Chicago, December was the peak month for chubs' (in

1941), January for carp. In January, too, the big lake fisheries for

8 CONSERVAT[ON BULLETiN 34

smelt are under way and these fish are at their best for freezing.

Saugers from the Canadian lakes reach their highest abundance just

after the first of the year and continue plentiful through February

and March.

March brings in an abundance of frozen fish from more distant

waters, especially halibut, sablefish, and salmon, from the Pacific.

This month big shipments of buffalofish reach the markets, continuing

Figure 3.-.-Gill nets drying on reels are familiar sights in inland flshing towns.

through April. Carp is still abundant and of good flavor, so one may

interchange these two somewhat similar species;

April is the month for catfish, pickerel, lake trout, and suckers;

smelt from the streams of Michigan and Wisconsin; yellow pike perch

and perch. The fresh-wat~r fishes in general are near the peak of

their abundance on the market; the ocean fishes at a relatively low ebb.

Lobster meat is fairly plentiful, and this is the last month to enjoy

any but frozen oysters until the opening of the fall season.

May is the best month to buy the delicious blue pike perch. Sheeps-bead

are also coming into the markets in great abundance, although

any month from March through June finds good numbers of this fish

available. Catfish are still abundant, and continue so throughout the

summer. Lake trout and yellow perch should be plentiful this month.

FOOD. FROM HOME WATE~~S 9

More whitefish are on the market during June than any other month,

although they are available throughout the year. and numerous from

Mayor June through September. (Most of the whitefish consumed in

the United States come from Canada.) Many catfish, chubs,' lake

trout, sheepshead, and suckers are seen in the markets this month.

In July and .August yellow perch, whitefish, suckers, chubs, and

catfish are good fishes to buy. Fresh-water fishes are less abundant

during the summer months than at other seasons of the year, whereas

the frozen fillets of marine species like haddock, pollock, and rosefish

are 'sold in greatest quantity at this season. -

In September, catfish, chubs, lake trout, pickerel, sanger, whitefish,

and yellow pike all are above their average market abundance .

.Eels, taken in largest numbers during their fall migration down the

rivers to the ocean, are most numerous in the markets during October,

,but continue abundant until the end of the year. Bullheads, pickerel,

- sauger, suckers, and whitefish are also good October fish.

Fisheries for lake trout and lake herring are most active in Novem-bel',

and large quantities of these excellent fish are shipped to market.

Except for whitefish, most other fishes are somewhat under their

average market abundance.

In December, heavy fishing for chubs is in progress, taking quantities

of these small, fat members 'of the whitefish family from icy lakes to

be smoked and marketed .. Herring, lake trout, whitefish, and yellow

, perch are aU good fish to buy in December. . .

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BIOGRAPHIES OF MIDWESTERN FISHES

Carp' (Cyprinus carpio) .

Carp are regularly taken for market in at least 35 States and, along

with ·buffalofish and catfish, rank as the most important commercial

species of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Because most of

the carp of the Middle West have beenshipped to specialized markets

in such eastern cities as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, many

people, even in the chief earp-producing States such as Illinois and

Minnesota, are totally unfamiliar with its possibilities as a food fish.

Properly prepared, carp is not merely palatable but a real delicacy-lean-

meated rather than fat-firm-fleshed and of good flavor. The

average size of market carp ranges from 2 to 7 pounds. In certain

cities, especially in St. Louis, the practice of filleting carp makes it

unnecessary for the housewife to buy a larger fish than her family can

eat at one meal. While some people may prefer the convenient and

easy-to-prepare fillets, others will use the whole carp baked and stuffed

as an appetizing family dinner, available at low cost. A split or

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10 OONSERVA.TffON BULLETIN 34

filleted carp may be broiled or fried. Some people put carp left-overs

through the meat grinder and prepare fish cakes, using the carp much

as they use flaked or shredded codfish. Carp also lends itself to the

preparation of savory stews, and in smoked form is a product worth

trying, although only small quantities are available.

Carp may be caught at any season of the; year, but since their

flavoris better when taken from cold waters, there is little fishing

for this species during the summer. In many sections of the Middle

'Vest, carp taken in off seasons are placed in holding ponds and later

shipped to market. In winter, the carp fishermen of Minnesota,

Wisconsin, and Illinois set their long nets under the ice and haul

them by machinery. Smaller quantities of carp are taken in hoop

nets which are set in shallow water.

Figure 4.-The carp fisheries can provide millions of pounds of good food. 12.81

In the Chicago markets, January is the biggest carp month, al-though

large quantities are sold also in December, March, April, and

May. The catch of carp in the Mississippi usually is several times

as great as t.hat in the Great Lakes. The carp fisheries of the Great

Lakes are principally in Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Erie,· where

the largest catches are made west of Sandusky. Such large im-poundments

as the TVA lakes recently have become known for the

abundance of their carp.

The story of the carp is interesting as the tale of an immigrant

fish that has adapted itself with surprising ease to conditions found

in a new country. As recently as the Civil War period there were

no carp in the Middle West nor anywhere else in the United States.

Not until 1876 were carp brought to this country from Germany,

thus completing another step in the series of involuntary migra-tions

that brought this fish from China, its native land, to Europe

in 1227, to England at the beginning of the sixteenth century, and

FOOD FROM HOME WATER/B. 11

finally to America. Here its closest relatives, the numerous and

varied minnows, were native members of the fish fauna. The intro-duced

carp were put into fish ponds inW ashington, D. C., and in

1879the species was distributed in the waters of 25 States and Ter-ritories,

Quickly establishing itself, the carp has multiplied so rap-idly

that in some areas it is accused of crowding out other species.

In any event, it is now so abundant and so widely distributed as to

provide a valuable source of protein ,food for hundreds of scattered

communities..

12.82\

Figure S.-A netfulof carp.

Under domestication in ponds, three races of the original carp

ilavearisen. The common uniformly scaled type is most like the

ancestral :Asiatic fish; the so-called mirror carp have very large

scales placed in irregular rows with intervening patches of uncovered

skin; the third variety, the leather carp, has no scales (or at the

most, very few) and its skin is soft and velvety to the touch. Occa-sionally,

the carp hybridizes with the goldfish, another Asiaticim-portation

to which it is related. Many such hybrids are now found

in Lake Erie.

Largely vegetarian in their diet, carp also eat shellfish, insect

larvae, and shrimp-like water animals, They prefer moderately

warm water, but can withstand extreme cold. May and June are the

spawning months in northern United States. Carp are only mod-i

t

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12 CONSERVATWN BULLE~TIN 34

.-'

FOOD FROM HiOMEWATEIRtS 13

The buffalofish of midwestern markets may be any .one of at least

three species of fishes, all found throughout the Mississippi Valley but

seldom taken in the Great Lakes. The common buffalofish, 1 ctiobus

(}Vyprinella, which also goes by such picturesque names as redmouth,

bigmouth, .and gourdhead buffalo, prefers bays, sloughs, and lakes

rather than the swift currents of rivers. Ordinarily it is the largest

of the group, the giants of the species reaching a weight of 75 pounds.

The round buffalo, Ictiobue niger', (called also the bugler, the rooter,

and the prairie buffalo) is most abundant in the southern part of the

Mississippi Valley, usually weighs less than 20 pounds but may weigh

as much as 70 pounds, and is very similar to the common buffalo in its

J .

12,814

figu,e 6 .....,.The small mouth buffalo and its close. relatives are the m~st abundant food fishes

. .' of the Mississi,ppi .Rive~.. .

qualities as a food fish and in its general habits. Third and last of

the common market species is the smallmouth buffalo, Ictiobus bubali»,

known in some localities as the suckermouth or channel buffalo, and

in the southern Mississippi Valley as the razorback. This is a fish of

the rivers, at home in deep channels and turbulent currents, with a.

more lithe and slender body fitting it for an active existence. The

smallmouth buffalo may reach a weight of 45 pounds and a length of

3 feet. It is usually considered superior in flavor to the otherspecies.

All of thebuffalofishes belong to the sucker family, which has

numerous representatives scattered throughout the United States.

The family is closely related to the carps and minnows and like

them is thought to have originated in Asia. The suckers, however,

unlike the. carps, made their own way to America. The two groups .

are easily distinguished by noticing the conspicuous, whiskerlike

barbels on the upper jaw of the carp, and the heavy, serrated dorsal \

spine. These features are lacking in the buffalofishes,

530548°--43----3

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14 OONSERVAT:ION BUL,LET[N 34

Although carp outrank buffalo in volume of production if the'

Great Lakes and Mississippi catches are combined, the buffalofishes

are produced more abundantly than any other fish in the Mississippi

and its tributaries. For many years the annual catch has amounted

to about 15 million pounds, most of which comes from the State of

Louisiana. Fyke nets in the Atchafalaya and Red Rivers take the

greater part of the Louisiana catch.

Like the carp, the buffnlofishes eat quantities of vegetation and also

feed on numerous minute aquatic animals, chiefly those found on the

bottom. Their simpler food habits havemuch to do with the fact

that they are able to live in waters where conditions are unsuitable

for fish like bass and crappies, which exist largely on a diet of smaller

fishes. Buffalo and carp are found in great abundance in many of the

larger impoundments like the artificial lakes of the Tennessee Valley.

In these areas they represent an important food resource of which, at

present, only a fractional part is harvested.

For a number of years buffalofishes have been reared successfully in

ponds by fish-culturists of several Midwestern States and the Federal

Government. They are to be commended to owners of private ponds

who wish to produce a substantial, nutritious food crop with relatively

little effort.

The remarkable spawning habits of the buffaloflshes were well

described in a letter written by A. A. Mosher to the first U~S. C0111-'

missioner of Fisheries in 1885, as follows:

.. I,

When the water begins to grow warm after the ice goes out these fish are

around the shores in immense quantities: they are in bunches of from 3 to 7 or

8; the female is in the center, and when she sinks to the bottom to deposit her

egg'sthe males crowd around and under her, pushing her to the top of the water,

until their tails and fins are out; then th'ey make a tremendous rush, causing

the water to foam, and, with a noise that can be heard on a still evening a mile,

they go ahead for a few rods, then sink, and the same performance is done

over. The people call it "tumbling"; in fact, it is.a sight which once seen will

never be forgotten.

It is believed that the eggs are expelled and fertilized during the

splashing. The parent fish do not prepare a nest and give no care

to the fertilized eggs and resulting young. The eggs adhere for the

most part to submerged or floating grasses, brush, or debris. Under

favorable temperatures the young hatch in9 or 10 days and immed-iatelycome

to the surface ..

Although there has been a regular fishery for the. buffalofishes

for many years, apparently they are as abundant as. ever in the

Mississippi Valley as a whole. Probably there is a reserve supply-especially

in the large artificial lakes-adequate to meet the already

increasing demand. Certainly any fishes as abundant and as long

. j

FOOD FROM ROME WATERS 15

and widely known as the buffalofishes will play an important part in

relieving the shortage of protein foods.

J

!,

Suckers (Genera Catostomus and MoxostomaJ

"i f/iF

!

, , I Almost every boy who ever fished a country stream has caught a

sucker, for these are among the most abundant and widely distributed

of all our fishes.' About 60 species inhabit the waters of the United

States, some living in small streams, others in the Great Lakes. One

kind of sucker when it is full grown may be no longer thana man's I" .. hand ; related species may attain a length of 3 feet. .Out of this

bewildering number and variety of suckers; two groups are of out-standing

importance as food: the fine-scaled, suckers of the genus.

Catostomus and the red-horse-suckers of the genus Moeostoma. '

,

I

~

Figure 7.-Slickers, a'bundantinmany rivers and lakes, are good food fishes. The common

sucker shown here is a native of the Great Lakes ,and the upper Mississippi Valley.

,When trey come from the deep waters of lakes or from clear running

streams-as most of the commercially important species do-suckers

have a firm, sweet, and flaky meat. Being, definitely lean they should

be broiled or stewed or may be used in any of therecipescaIlingfor

flaked fish, Use of anyof the sauces recommended in good cook books

. for leanfish will help to bring out the full flavor and' add to th~

attractiveness of the dish. The only objectionto suckers-as food is the

considerable number 'of small bonesj but these are not necessarily

troublesome in the fish of three to five pounds which are the usual

market sizes. Small numbers of suckers are smoked, but most are sold

fresh.

The quantities of suckers taken by commercial fishermen ordinarily

have run to 5 or 6million pounds, about two-thirds of which come from

Lakes Huron and Michigan. Suckers rank about seventh among all

fishes of the Great Lakes in the volume of production. Shipments

, into Chicago in 1942 increased by more than '50 percent over thosein

16 OONSERVATrrON BUL.LE'TIN ·34

1941,suggesting that the fishery as a whole perhaps may be increasing

in intensity, and certainly that the demands in some markets are

greater than formerly .

. ,i

Fi.gure S.-With crude dip nets, fishermen take suckers from the. streams.

12,821

Some suckers ~recaught throughout the year, but the largest catches

are made during the spring months. This is the spawning season,

when suckers of all species run up into small streams to deposit their

eggs. The suckers begin to run as soon as the ice is out of the streams,

often fighting swift currents and rough waters. At this time it is easy'

'FOOD F'ROM HOME WATERS 17

to distinguish the males by the gay coloring of black or red-that appears

on the body, especially. on the fins. The males "also develop rough,

wart-like protuberances, called pearl organs, on head, fins, and tail.

These spawning runs, when large numbers of fish crowd into narrow

headwater streams, have long been familiar to farmers and others who

have had an opportunity to observe them.

Suckers, often known as fresh-water mullet, get their more fre-quently

used common name from their method of obtaining food.

Using their rounded, protruding lips almost like a vacuum cleaner,

they suck food from the stream or lake bed into their mouths. Suckers

hav~ no 'teeth on their jaws, but the hones in the throat region are

equi~ped.vvith teeth which in certain species are heavy enough to

crush.the.shells of fresh-water mussels or snails. Such shellfish, along

with thelarvae of aquatic insects, are the principal foods of the.larger

species of suckers which form the .bulk of the commercial supply.

< Most 'important of thefine-scaledsuckers is the; white or' common

sucker, Oatostomus commersonii, afish of the Great Lakes and also of

smaller rivers and streams of the upper Mississippi Valley. This 'is

one or'themost abundant suckers, especially commonin Lakes Huron

andMi,chig~;n.: It .is taken'inseines,traps, and gill nets, and often

acceptsili baited hook ... It· may attain a length of 22 inches and a

weight of 5 pounds but, the average fish issomewhaJ .smaller, This

is-anolive-colored-e-...a.lmostgolden-.·fish, and inthespring the males

develop rosy bands along tpei~ .fiinks. ..'" .

~i':Th¢long-nosed sucker,CatoBtomJUs(}atostorwus, is abundant from- .

~heGreat Lakes northward', although scarce in the Mississippi Valley.

''I;his species 'is also called. thenorthernsuclrer. and' (trom the broad

rosybandworn by the males in, spring)thered'-siriped sucker. It is

a cold-waterfish-found in streams whereonewould.lookfor trout,:ahd

in somelakes it' is taken 'from deep water, It, is a food fish of some

importance and attains aweight of several pounds. . .

'T.hered-horsesuckers, also called redfin, are named from the color

assumed by the lower fins of themales during the spawning season.

The common redhorse; MoiJ(j8toma~aureolwm; may weigh as muchas

5 or 6 pounds. .'Its range.includes the Great Lakes region to the water ..

shed,of the Missouri and extends 'southward to:the latitude of Arkan-sas..

It prefers swift-flowing streams and its flesh isof good flavor.

Catfishes and Bullheads'

Throughout the whole' of the Mississippi Basin, .the catfishes are

among the most important of food fishes. Annual commercial pro-duction

is more than 10 million pounds, and in addition, a large, but

unknown number are caught by hook-and-line fishermen for home use.

More than half of the total commercial yield, or some 6,662,987

18 aONSERV ArI1lON BULLETIN 34

"

pounds, comes from the State of Louisiana',' where the river Atcha-falaya

is the center of the fishery. Another million pounds comes

from the waters of Arkansas, the other States of the Valley sharing

about equally in the production of the remaining 3 million pounds.

Although ranking third in volume, the catfishes and bullheads are the

most valuable fishery product of the Mississippi; River.

, 12.811; 12.812

Figure 9.-ThEi channel catfishes have forked tails, while the bullheads carry a broom-shaped

tail. Both are excellent food flshes, although the channel catfishes are ge~erally

preferred.

Fishery statistics group all catfishes and bullheads together, al-though

the total figures include at least four major species: the blue

channel catfish, the spotted or fiddler catfish, the yellow catfish, and

the bullhead or horned pout. The first three are generally classed

as channel-cats in allusion to their general preference for clear streams

and deep, swift channels. The catfishes have deeply notched

tails, whereas bullheads have square or shallowly notched tails.

Largest of the Mississippi catfishes is the channel-cat or blue

channel-cat, I ctalurus [urcatus, found throughout the Valley and in the

FOOD FROM· HOME WATERS 19

Gulf States, and most -ahundant in the southern part of its range. It

frequents the deeper waters of river channels, but in spring follows

the flood waters as they overflow into shallow backwaters and swamps,

and . bites well on the trot lines set by fishermen .in these regions.

Average .size blue catfish probably run from 15 to 20 pounds, and

enormous specimens as large as 150pounds have been recorded. This

species ranks with the paddlefish and the lake sturgeon as one of the

three largest North American fresh-water food fishes, although no

American catfish competes with the 400-pound wels or European cat-fish.

The flesh of the blue channel-cat is of excellent quality, being

firmand flaky, highly nutritious, and delicately flavored.

Most widely distributed and perha ps most generally esteemed of all

catfishes native to the Mississippi Valley is the smaller spotted or

fiddler cat, Ictalurue punctaius. It ranges from Florida and north-ern

Mexico to the Great Lakes region, and has been successfully ac-elimatized

in regions where it is not native. Much smaller than' the

blue channel cat, it commonly weighs about 5 pounds, although larger

specimens have been taken. It is trimmer and more gamy than the

other catfishes or bullheads, and is accordingly esteemed by anglers

as well as by commercial fishermen. As a food fish, many people

give it first rank among the catfishes. The flesh is firm, flaky, and

deliciously flavored.. Because-of its thinner skin there is less waste

in preparingit for the t~bfe.' '

The yellow catfish or goujon, Leptopeolioaris, is another large

species, frequentlyweighing as much as 50 or 75 pounds, and some-times

more than 100pounds. '. Strongvactive, and predacious in habit,

it roams the channels' and the, more sluggish waters alike. It is

highly esteemed as a food fish beoauseof the fine texture and excel-lent

flavor of its flesh. With the blue catfish, it forms the principal

support of the fisheries of the Atchafalaya River.

The bullhead or horned pout, Ameiu'f"U8 nebuloeu«; is better

. adapted to cultivation: in private ponds than any of the catfishes.

Abundant in all ponds, lakes, and sluggish streams of eastern United

States and the Mississippi Valley region, it has adapted itself to

widely varying conditions and may be cultivated with less difficulty

.than the channel catfishes, which do not thrive in still water. Al-though

not generally considered a sport fish, the bullhead bites on

almost any bait, hence is well known even to amateur anglers. The

unusual breeding habits of the bullhead are of particular interest.

After preparing the nest, both parents care 'for the eggs, keeping the

water agitated with their fins. From time to time the parent takes

the eggs into the mouth and blows them out forcibly. Both of

these actions are continued even after the eggs hatch and until the

fry are ably to swim freely. The maximum size of this species is

20 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 34

.-'

about a foot and a half with the average size considerably smaller.

Like that of the catfishes, the flesh, properly prepared, is firm, flaky,

and delicious. .

In addition to those described, many other species of catfishes

and bullheads are native to the United States but are unimportant

as food fish. The salt-water species include interesting forms-in which

the males carry the eggs in the mouth during the entire period of

incubation. Another unusual species is the electric catfish of the Nile

.which is capable of inflicting a strong electric shock. Undoubtedly

derived from scaled ancestors, during later development the catfishes

have become naked skinned. As a group they are hardy, prolific, and

able to survive many unfavorable conditions. It is rather surprising

that no species of catfish is native to United States waters west of the

Rocky Mountains, although several have now been introduced

successfully.

Because of their good quality and widespread occurrence; the cat-fishes

form a valuable food resource that presents no difficult problems

of distribution .. Most of the catch is consumed locally, shipments even

to such a large midwestern city as Chicago amounting to only about

300,000 pounds a year. The months from April to September are

the height of the catfish season. .

Sheepshead (Aplodinotus· grunniensJ

The only fresh-water relative of the well-known marine croakers

and red and black drums is the sheepshead, This single species of fish,

known by at least half a dozen different common names, is to be found

in almost all the lakes and larger streams from the Great Lakes to

Texas, and between the Appalachian Mountains and the Great Plains.

Pre- war fisheries for the sheepshead brought in annual yields

amounting to about six or seven million pounds, taken chiefly in the .

Mississippi and its tributaries. It is safe to say that future yields

will be much larger as market demands continue to increase. Recent

changes in the Chicago market indicate a definite trend toward wider

use of the sheepshead. In 1942, Chicago dealers handled nearly twice

as great a poundage of this species as in 1941; a considerably greater

increase than was registered by carp, buffalo, or catfish.

The sheepshead is one of the largest .river fishes in America, weigh-ing

as much as 50 or 60 pounds. The larger specimens are of interest

from the natural history standpoint, but are of no value for the

market. The smaller individuals, on the other hand, (three-quarters of

a pound to three pounds) are tender-meated and of excellent flavor,

The meat of these choice sheepshead is lean and white and, like that

of all other fishes, easily digested and rich in nutritious elements;

,

!

FOOD FROM IffiME WA:TEIRS -21

.-It would seemlogical that in any locality sheepshead, ranging all the

_way from newly-hatched- fry to the patriarchal 60~poUliders,might- be

found. This is not true, however, a fact which is still mystifying the

naturalists. One lake or section of a river may be noted for 30-to

40-pound_fish; in another the catch may consist almost invariably of

2- or 3-pound fish; and in still another place sheepshead between 4 and

15 pounds may be extremely rare, even though the larger and smaller

sizes are abundant. In general, sheepshead of the Mississippi River

-itself are moderate-sized fish, suitable for the market.

12.695

Figure 10.-:'The" sheepshead -is ci fresh-waterrel~tive of· the m~rine drums and like them

produces sounds -audible above the water.

Throughout much of its range, people commonly can the sheepshead -

the fresh-water drum because of its ability to produce a noise easily

heard through several feet of water. Where sheepshead are particu--

larly abundant, this strange reverberation is one of the characteristic

evening sounds of the river. Like its salt-water relatives, the croakers

and drums, the sheepshead possesses specialized muscles which may

be vibrated against the large airbladder to produce' the drumming

noise. Probably the sound serves to call the schools of fish together.

Other names referring to the same habit are croaker and thunder-pumper.

Less appropriate is the name white perch by which the

sheepshead, unfortunately, is called in some parts of the Mississippi

Valley. In Louisiana there is still heard the name "gaspergou," ap-plied

by the early French inhabitants in recollection of some Old

World fish of fancied similarity. This old name is now generally

shortened to goo and is so listed on bills of shipments.

--...;

I

22 CONSERVATION BULLETiIN 34

The shespshead limits its diet almost exclusively to fresh-water mus-sels,

and has' the further distinction of being the only known fish

whoseactivities result in the cultivation of a food crop which it later

harvests. Young mussels must pass the early or larval stages of life

attached as parasites to the gills of a fish. During this period they

absorb nourishment from the blood of the fish, later" drop off and

develop into adult mussels on the bed of the river. Only certain

fishes can serve as hosts to c-ertainspecies of mussels because of chem-ical

differences in the composition of the blood. The sheepshead

picks up enormous numbers of larvae as it feeds on mussel beds and is

said to carry the heaviest load of young mussels of any of the river

fish. These mussels are later planted to grow into food for sheeps-head.

At least one species of mussel that is economically important

to man is wholly dependent for its existence on sheepshead, for it

cannot attach to any other fish. In addition, several other species

important in the manufacture of buttons' and ornaments are aided

by this fish. "

Chiefly a market fish taken in seines and fyke nets, the sheepshead

is also caught occasionally by anglers using crayfish bait. "Although

it seems to prefer quiet water, at times it is taken from areas of swift

and turbulent currents. ,

Judging by shipments into the Chicago markets, which in 1942

received 1,807,667pounds of sheepshead, the peak of the fishery falls

in May and June, with shipments gradually declining to their lowest

level in November, December, and January.

Smelt (Osmerus mordax)

, The smelt was introduced into Great Lakes waters to provide food

for fish, but has now become a valued food for man. Easily caught

not only by commercial fishermen but by any amateur .with even' a

felt hat as a dipnet, the small fish at the time of the spawning runs

provide a welcome and delicious local food in Michigan and Wisconsin

and are shipped to points as far distant as New Y'ork and Boston.

In less than 40 years' time, the smelt has become so abundant that the

, total catch by all classes of fishermen outranks any regular commercial

fishery of Lake Michigan,' and on the Great Lakes as a whole is

exceeded only by that of three or four fisheries.

The slender, green and silvery smelt takes its name from the ancient

Anglo-Saxon word "smoelt," meaning smooth or shining. Local

names that suggest its color are ice fish and frost fish. In appearance

much like a small and slender member of the salmon family to which it

is related, the smelt was brought to the Great Lakes, area from its

native New England in 1906. The purpose of the introduction was to

provide food for the landlocked salmon which were being planted

FOOD FROM· HOME WAT'EIRS 23

simultaneously in Michigan.' The introduction of the salmon failed;

that of the smelt succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of those

who carried out the project. First smelt plantings in Michigan went

into the St. Mary's River, but the only successful introductions were

,those in Crystal, Howe, and Trout Lakes. In :fact, it is believed that

all the smelt now found in Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and

Erie came from some sixteen million eggs taken from Green Lake,

Maine, and planted in Crystal Lake. The smelt is now caught in all

the Great Lakes, but nevertheless is most abundant in 'Lake Michigan,

and of all Lake Michigan waters, appears to prefer Green Bay.

;Srtielt fisheries, which fall into three classes, collectively take per-haps

20 million pounds of fish..' The commercial fishery is prosecuted

on the Great Lakes during the winter, when most of the fish must b~

12.700

Figure 11.-The smelt was, introcluce~into the Great Lakes from 'New England, arid now is

consider~d an important source of food.

" ,

, '

taken under the ice. Because,of the ease of shipping 'these winter-caught

fish long distances, smelt fishermen get best prices at this'

season, obtaining as much as 15 cents a pound for their, catches.

The winter fishery 'in Lake Michigan alone yields-from a million to

a million and a half pounds, In addition to the regular commercial

operators, occasional hook-and-line fishermen catch a few hundred

thousandpounds in the smaller lakes.' By far the greatest part ofthe

smeltproduction, however, takes place during the spawning runs, at

which time professionals and amateurs-old and young-men and

women-join in the occupation of smelt dipping. Smelt jamborees

and smelt festivals are annual events in which literally tens of thou-:

sands of people take part, to their own enjoyment and the profit of

hotels, restaurants, and merchants in the areas of the heavy smelt runs.

Like their relatives thatJive in the ocean and ascend rivers and

streams to spawn, the smelt of the Great Lakes area leave the large

lakes and throng into the tributary streams as soon as the ice breaks,

up in the spring. Coming up the rivers in unbelievable numbers, their

glittering bodies darken the water and form easy prey for the hundreds

24 OOINSERVATfliON BULL,E'TITN 34

of people who line the banks waiting to scoop them up.. The clipping

continues throughout the night, with bonfires on the river banks illum-inating

the scene. The spawning Tuns in the Great Lakes area may

begin as early as March 17 or as late as April 28. The peak of the

runs seldom lasts more than a, week, .and because of the enormous

number of fish caught in.so short a time many are' wasted. The. spring

Figure 12.-These silvery .smelt were taken in a Michigan pound net.

production in Green Bay, center of smelt dipnetting, is ,abqut6:mi~-

lion pounds'; and in the Menominee River about the samequantity.is

taken by dipnetters.

Smelt are sold both fresh and frozen. Fresh smelt arepacked in

25-pound boxes, iced, and shipped by express, often in carload lots,

to New York, Boston, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, and other-cities.

With wider utilization of frozen smelt, much of the waste of the

spring-caught fish might be avoided. '

, According to the average size of the fish caught (7 or 8 inches),

!

FOOD FROM HOME WATER& " 25

,it takes ten' Or' eleven, smelt to make a pound. ' In Lake Michigan

they may reach a length of 14 inches and a weight of half apound,

but these larger specimens are few. The spawning runs are made

up largely of fish 7 to 9 inches long, which are 2 to 3 years old.

The flesh of the smelt is lean and sweet, with a particularly delicate

flavor, earning this fish the reputation of being one of the choicest of

panfishes. Van Oosten 2 tells how to prepare it:

Smelt are usually eaten fried. They are most palatable when rolled in flour,

corn meal, or cracker meal and fried in' plenty of fat. Some prefer to mix a

small quantity .or brown sugar wtththe corn meal. Butter or a mixture of lA,

butter and % vegetable shortening 01' bacon grease imparts an excellent flavor

The fi~h should be fried until golden brown. ' A gourmet has, his smelt fried

crisp and eats bones and all.

Smelt may also be baked. Two methods are recommended. The first method ,

consists of rolling the smelt in flour and placing them in a shallow pan. The

fish are covered with slices of bacon, seasoned with salt and pepper, and baked

in a moderatelyhot oven until brown. The second method consists of placing

slices orbacon, tomatoes (canned tomatoes should be dralnedjv-ehopped green

peppers; and minced onions between layers of smelt in a deep baking dish or

casserole. .'Th.~top should be sprinkled with' cracker crumbs arid dotted with

butter.~' After themixturehas been bake'd thoroughly it should be browned in a

very hot oven and served immediately. " ,

,Bur"ot (Lota maculosa)

"The only member of the cod£amily that lives in freshwater is the

~hrbot. This long and rather slender fish, with elongated fins run-riing.

in .a low and' almost 'continuous flange' around the posterior haif

of the body, --looksmore like th.eNew England cusk than the cod, and

is, in fact, called the fresh-watercusk. It is easily distinguished from

other fishes found in the same waters by this unusual form of body and

also by the presence of. three whisker-like barbels, .two by the nostrils

and one on the middle of the chin. ,

The burbotis found in the Great Lakes and in smaller lakes and

some rivers all the way from the latitude of Maine and New York and

the upper Missouri and Columbia' Rivers to the Arctic Circle. Like

other cods, it prefers cold water. Usually it remains in 'the, deeper

parts of the ponds and lakes it inhabits, and has been taken at depths

as 'great as 700 feet. It is' generally a nocturnal feeder, and in some

places comes into the shallows at night.

The burbot was once described, (Adams' and Hankinson, 1928) as.

"a fish of the future," awaiting only some circumstance which would

bring it to public attention to gain for it recognition as a desirable

food fish. 'Wartime meat shortages, plus scarcity of more familiar

2 Van' Oosten, John. The smelt, Osmerus' mordOA! (Mltchtll}, February 14, 1940.

(Mimeographed publication of the-Mtchigan Conservation' Commtsslon.)

26 OONSERVA'T[{)N BULLETIN 34

fishes, already are making the public burbot-conscious. In Chicago,

only 1,800pounds of burbot were marketed in 1941"but 34,000pounds

found their way to this city in 1942. Frozen fillets of burbot made

up more than two-thirds of these greatly increased shipments.

The flesh of the burbot somewhat resembles that of its popular New

England relatives, the cod and haddock. Salt .burbot is said to be

almost indistinguishable from salt codfish, although this product is

not prepared on a commercial scale. In Europe it has long been

esteemed as a great delicacy, both for its white and delicate fleshand

for its liver. When taken from cold northern waters the burbot is at

its best as a food fish. It should be.prepared for the table like any

other lean-meated fish, and most of the well-known recipes for cod

and haddock may be used. It may be dipped in egg aildcracker

crumbs, seasoned, and fried; or it may be boiled and combined with

Figure 13.-The burbot is a fresh-water cod.

spaghetti, tomato sauce,' or cheese. Baking is also recommended.

Flaked burbot may be used to make afish loaf or pie, or in salads or

sandwich fillings. ,

The burbot is also an excellent source of medicinal oils, for its liver

is very oily and yields a product richer in vitamin A than the well-known

cod-liver oil.

Before the war began to make it familiar to housewives of other

regions, the greatest demand for burbot was in Maine, New Hamp-shire,

and Montana. In the latter State it is sometimes marketed 'as

northern catfish, perhaps on 'account of its whisker-like facial appen-dages.

As has been pointed out, the burbot is a cod, with no close

relatives among the catfish clan. '

The burbot itself is a fish eater, its diet consisting almost entirely

of other fishes and crayfish. By reputation, it is one of the greatest

gourmands among fishes, eating until it is unable to cram another

particle of food into its distensible stomach.

Anglers are not much interested in the burbot, although it takes a

trout hook readily enough. Sometimes it is taken through the ice, and

occasionally is captured by tip-up fishermen seeking pike perch. Most

of the commercial catch is taken in trap nets.

FGOD FROM HOMEWATEIRS 27

Bowfin lAmia calva)

If you like your fish tangy, and full of the rich flav~r of green

. hickory smoke, try smoked bowfin as a local substitute for smoked

·salmon and herring or finnan haddie, The chances are that you"will

agree' with Gowanloch, Louisiana biologist and gourmet, who 10 years

ago pronounced the bowfin "one of the best of all smokedfishes."

Unfortunately, with characteristic slowness to fit, the recipe to the

fish, most of us who have departed from culinary routine enough to

try the bowfin have eaten. it fresh, with disappointing results. Lt

takes an expert to make anything out of a bowfin in the fresh state,

·wheneas the smoked product 1)lay be prepared with appetizing results

·py almost any of the tried and tested recipes for other smoked. fish. .

Some people like smoked bowfin cold, served with, the garnish of their

. .

Figure 14.-The bowfin rriakesan excellentsmo!<ed:fish; usually is less palatable eaten fresh.

choice. If you insist upon trying it fresh, Gowanloch (1933) passes

011 the recommendation: that the fish be skinned, deprived of its back-bone,

cut into halves and then into slices which are fried in deep fat,

like doughtnuts .

. Throughout much of the' region from the Great Lakes to the Gulf,

the bowfin is such an abundant fish in the lakes, the sluggish rivers,

and the swampy backwaters of the Mississippi that hundreds of com-

.munities will have theirown local supply .. This fact makes it possi-ble

for farmers, andothers who.have suitable facilities to smoke their

own bowfin, just as they smoke their own hamsand bacon. Although

often eaten in southern Illinois and ·further south, the bowfin is an'

. under-exploited resource, awaiting only intelligent utilization to make'

it a valuable contributor to our food supply.

While the general public has largely neglected the bowfin, for many

years naturalists have considered it one of the most interesting fishes

in American fresh waters. Combining characteristics of fishes that

are extinct as truly as the dinosaur or the dodo with other qualities

appropriate to a thriving twentieth-century fish, the bowfin is a

strange blend of contradictions. Unlike most other fishes, it some-times

breathes air as land animals do. This arrangement goes back

28 CONSERVATION BULLE,TIN 34

to the ancient Devonian period, when vast droughts made life difficult

for all fishes. The ancestors of the modern bowfin were able to sur-vive

the Devonian droughts by swallowing air into the sac known as

the air bladder, which thus functioned as a primitive, sort of lung.

Now, when the receding flood waters of the Mississippi leave vast

backwater areas of swampy mud, the bowfin suffers no inconvenience,

for, like its long-dead ancestors, on such occasions it breathes the

,oxygen of the air instead of the oxygen of the water; It is claimed

that after the Louisiana fields have dried out enough for cultivation

to begin, live bowfin are sometimes turned up by the plow.

No doubt this surprising tenacity of life has something to do with

the fact that the bowfin figures in much local folklore of a sensa-tional

and highly imaginative character. Its general physical

toughness, plus the fact that people have seldom troubled to exploit

it commercially, help to make it a,thriving and abundant form wher-ever

it occurs. Despite the fact that it is not widely used as a food,

the, bowfin is a well-known fish bearing a variety of local names: Vir-ginians

give it the dignified name of John A. Grindle,_which in the

central Mississippi Valley is shortened to Grindle; Great Lakes, and

upper Mississippi Valley people are apt to call it dogfish; while in

Louisiana it receives an old French name-choupique. 'In Illinois, a

few are marketed as prairie bass or catfish.

Of interest also is the bowfin's habit of building nests and guarding

its eggs, much as sunfishes do. The male fish prepares the nest by

clearing away vegetation and hollowing out a circular area on the

bottom, into which it brushes fine gravel and plant debris. The nest

is about 2% feet across. The male guards his property with great

aggressiveness and, after the hatching of the young, accompanies the

fry as they swim about in a compact school. This parental care is

not relaxed until the young are about 4 inches long.

In the most recent year for which complete figures are available,

about half a, million pounds of bowfin were marketed, chiefly from

the Mississippi. Undoubtedly a much larger quantity can be caught

in ;resP?llse to increased demand, '

Gars or Gar Pikes (Family Leplsesteldee)

The gars are exclusively American fishes,being found only in North-ern

and Central America, although fossils of their ancestors have been

discovered in Europe. They are abundant fish of the Mississippi and

Great Lakes drainages, inhabiting the larger streams and more slug-gish

waters. .

The modern gar-pike family includes at Ieastthree species in North

America, all of which are abundant enough to be important as a

fishery resource. These are the large alligator gar of the. lower' Mis-

, '

,FOOD FROM HOME WATEiRS' 29

sissippi, a 12,~£00tfish that is equally at home in salt and fresh water;

the long-nosed gar, measuring up to 4 feet and found all the way f~om

the Great Lakes to the Gulf and on the Atlantic coast; and-the short-nosed

gar, which is confined to the Mississippi and attains a slightly

larger size than the preceding species. ' '

,Being abundant and widely distributed, the gars' offer definite pos-sibilities

as a food resource. The meat is white and wholesome, and

is at its best smoked. Louisiana fishermen often dig large pits in the'

ground, fill them with oak logs and smoke the gars over the hot ashes.

The resulting product is a half-smoked, half-barbecued fish said to be

very ~alatable. ' Steaks cut from smoked gars are broiled, or the meat

may 'be used in the preparation of fish cakes.

, .The eggs or roe of the gar are sometimes toxic and should not be

eaten. ' , " '

, Figur~ 1S:~Like the bo'wfln, i!te gar is at its best sm~ked'.,

, '

'," Pastneglect 'Ofthe gar as 'a rood fish has probably been due in part to

the former abundance of better known species, in part to the prejudice of fishermen against the gar as a'notorious enemy of other fishes. :The

destructiveness of the' gar- is obviously no argument against its ex-ploitation

by man, 'for the development of an extensive commercial

fishery would reduce itsabundance ~nd,'to a corresponding degree, its

depredations against more .valuable fishes.' ,

As predators, the gars are formidable enemies ofthe smaller or less

active fishes of the rivers, approaching their prey stealthily andseiz-irig

it by a sudden swift attack. Evenvery' siri~lIgars 'displi1y both

the cunning and the greediness of their elders. ' A long-nosed gar only

an inch and a quarter long was found by Forbes and Richardson (1908)

to have captured and eaten a minute fish, while a 2-inch gar examined

by them had eaten 16 young minnows!

The. presence of gars is not altogether harmful to the fauna of the

rivers, however, for these. fish, like the sheepshead, serve as hosts to

the larval, stages of certain fresh-water mussels. The most valuable

of all river mussels, the yellow sand shell, whose shell approaches in

luster and beauty, true mother-of-pearl, apparently is entirely depend-ent

for its existence on the gar. Because of chemical differences in the

~ ,.[

, !

. I

'. ,

30 CONSERVATJOiNBULLE'l1IN. 34

blood, no other fish is a suitable host for these young mussels during

the stage at. which they must attach themselves to the gills of a, fish

and draw nourishment from its blood. Therefore, many of our most

beautiful pearl buttons, knife. handles, and other ornaments are the

indirect result of the presenc~ of gars in our mussel-bearing rivers.

In ..a more direct way the gars have contributed to our stock of

useful and ornamental objects. .Like the. primitive Ganoid fishes

from which they are descended, the gars wear an armor of heavy

bony" scales.. Smith (1907) passes along the story that before the

days of steel plows farmers sometimes covered their wooden plow-shares

with the skin of gars, and Gowanloch (1933) .cites evidence

that th.,e. Indians used the scales as arrow. heads. '. In recent times

pins and other ornaments have been made from the beautifully white

and lustrous scales.

Like the bowfin, the. gars are able. to breathe air, and frequently

come to the surface, give off a bubble of exhausted air, and gulp in

a new supply. Apparently the gar can live for several days as an

air breather without recourse to breathing by the gills in the typical

fishlike manner.

The gars usually deposit their eggs in shallow, weedy water, spawn-ing

in Mayor June in most localities. The eggs become attached to

stones or weeds, and hatch in about B days. It is an interesting fact

that very soon after hatching the young display the solitary habits

of the adults. They float-near the surface in the sun or may even

suspend themselves (so tilly arethey)£rom the surface film; Forbes

and Richardson (1920) describe them as "extremely interesting and

even beautiful little animals', each marked with a broad black lateral

band."

Development of the. commercial fishery for gars should be en-couraged

by publie willingness to try this little-known food. The

addition of quantities of nutritious food to our diet is not the only

benefit to, be expected, for a fishery that would remove gars onthe

same scale on which catfish, buffalo, sheepshead, a~d .other commer-cial

species. are now caught. would' restore a more,' naturai balan~e

to the lIfe of the rivers.

Whitefish (Coregonus clupealormis)

The whitefish is generally recognized as the king of fresh-water

fishes, known all over theeountry for its delicious flesh. Its popu-larity

has proved disastrous, however, for this fish is now greatly

reduced in numbers and in some waters once famed for the quality

and quantity of their whitefish has become almost extinct. Through-out

the Great Lakes country from Lake Champlain to Lake Su-

FOOD FROM HOME WATE'RS·' 31

perior whitefish were once abundant. Now the total yield for the

United States waters of the Great Lakes and the borderline lakes

of Minnesota amounts to only about 4¥2 million pounds a year.

Most of the catch of whitefish is marketed fresh. Probably the

favorite method of preparation is baking, but delicious dishes are

also achieved by pan frying or broiling. The flesh is white and

flaky and the flavor delicate. The epicure considers smoked white-fish'

one of' the greatest contributions of the Great Lakes country

to his table. There. is no problem of creating a demand for smoked

whitefish ; the problem is to satisfy the existing demand." The pro-duction

of smoked whitefish in 1939 was 2,759,000 pounds, with a

vahie to the producer of $865,500. Whitefish roe, as a byproduct of

the fishery, is made into caviar as a substitute for the roe of the

vanishing sturgeon. The average weight of the individual fish in

the commercial catch is four pounds.

12,677

Figure 16.-0ite of the most prized of all fresh-water fishes, the whitefish is less abundant

now than formerlv.

The whitefish is a member of the family Coregonidae, which includes

the lake herring, chubs, ciscoes,and menominees, and isclosely related

tothe trouts. An easily observed mark of this relationship is the

short, fleshy adipose :fin on the back near the tail fin. Members of

the whitefish family are mainly lake fishes, although a few inhabit

rivers of the far Northwest. As a group, they are the most valuable

of all fishes of the Great Lakes;

Whitefish live in the moderately deep waters of the lakes, feeding

on shellfish and insects, and come into the shallows only at spawning

time. They are known to spawn in the fall on rocky reefs and shoals

from 4 to 20 feet deep. The female deposits from 10,000 to 75,000

eggs, depending on her size. 'About 5 months are required for the

II

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32 OOiNSERV AT/IION BULLETrrN 34

eggs to hatch, and during this time they are preyed upon by various

fishes and by mud-puppies (called lizards or water dogs in some

localities). .

Schools of young whitefish 2 to 4 weeks old may sometimes be seen

in shallow water near shore in the spring. Whitefish fry hatched in

the New York Aquarium were carried through the critical period of

infancy on a diet of mosquito larvae. Later, they were fed chopped

fresh meat on which they grew and thrived for more than 10 years.

These specimens are apparently the only whitefish ever brought to

12.822

Figure 17.-T""0 tons of whi,tefish were removed from this net.

maturity in captivity. The greatest age recorded for the whitefish

is 26 years, a figure determined by examining the markings on the

scales. ': ,. .' .

Commercial fishing operations are adjusted to the extensive seasonal

migrations of the whitefish. In Lake Erie, for example, where the

whitefish is confined to deep water at the eastern end of the lake for

the greater part of the year, a spring and fall movement shoreward

and toward the western end 'occurs each year. These migrations.

greatly increase the area of distribution during a limited period and

give rise to special gill- and pound-net fisheries. The spring move-ment

takes place during late April and May, while the fall migration,

which is much heavier and more widespread, takes the fish to spawning

grounds at a considerable distance from their native habitat.

FOOD FROM HOME WATEiRS 33

Lake Herring (Leudchihys arledil

The herring .of the Great' Lakes is related, not to the universally

known. sea herring, but to the whitefish, being another member of the

family Coregonidae. Although the lake herring is found in all of

the Great' Lakes, as well as in many of the smaller deep lakes of the, .

vicinity, it varies greatly from lake to lake in its characteristics as a

food fish. Those from western Lake Ontario and from Lake Erie

(where they are called ciscoes) are richer in oil than those-from Huron

and Michigan. These fat herring are in great demand as)fresh fish,

being I somewhat. similar' to the whitefish. Erie herring competed

strongly witK;'chubs 'for the smoked-fish trade until, excessive fishing

brought about a collapse ofthe.ciscoflshery of this lake iIi 1925'. Only

af.:raction of the former catch of ciscoes is now being. made in Lake

Figure 18.--:'Yhe lake herri,ng is eaten bothfi~5h~ndsri,oked~

, .

Erie .. ' Most of the Lake Superior herring are salted, although, some "

are frozen. .A small amount of herring is sold in filleted form. Com-,

mercial size herring usually run, three or tour to,the pound.

"Where herring are. abundant they wander about in large and easily

observed schools. They avoid inshore areas .inmid-winterv-when-the

water is rough, and In mid-summer when it is warm. At these seasons

the herring seek the deep and cool waters of the open lakes. ,During

.the spawning season of the whitefish the lake herring is said to work

considerable mischief by eating the eggs of its larger relative. In

the spring the herring shoals feed inshore and in the fall they come .in again to spawn. .' They not infrequently accept a baited hook.

Studies of the. scales of the lake herring show that it may attain

an age of at least 12 years; Because of the intensity of the fishery,

however, few have an opportunity to live longer than 3 to 5 years.

Present catches of lake herring (in all lakes combined) amount

34 OOlNSERVATITON BULLETIN 34

. I

to about 22 million pounds, the largest yield of any single species of

Great Lakes fish. Since this, like the whitefish and lake trout, is .

another resource that is being fished almost to the limit of its pro-ductivity,

only a small increase in the catch can be expected in re-sponse

to current demands.

Chubs (Species of Leucichthys)

The claim of the chubs to gastronomic fame rests on their excel-lence

as smoked fish. Every one of the seven kinds of chubs found

in the Great Lakes lends itself to smoking, but only one-the black-fin-

is used extensively as a fresh fish. The latter species enjoys 'a

reputation as a pan fish of superior flavor, but is now so reduced in

numbers that Lake Superior' is about the only source of commercial

quantities.

12.708

Figure 19.-The chubs, related tQ the whitefish, are found in the deeper waters of the

Gregt Lgkeli.

. .

The chubs are members of the whitefish family that inhabit the

deeper waters of the Great Lakes. There are seven closely related

species," all of which reach a size suitable for use as food. Lake

Michigan is the only lake that contains all seven species of chubs,

while shallow-wateredLake Erie has no chubs at all.' ,!'

Intensive' fishing has brought about changes in the chub popula-tions,

resulting in the' virtual disappearance of the largest chubs in

many areas. Although the early chub fishery was based almost en-tirely

on the larger species, the present-day fishery is maintained by

fish of smaller size. All species of chubs' are seriously reduced in

numbers throughout their' range, and this depletion has been car':'

ried to the point of extinction as a commercial fish in the 'case of the

bluefin of Lake Superior, the blackfin in Lake Michigan, and the

.'3 The species of chubs found in the Great Lakes are LeucichthY8 zenithicus, L. reighardv;

L. alpenae, the longjaw; L. [ohannae, L. nigripinnis, the blacldin; L. WiYi; and L. hoyt,

the bloater.

FOOD FROM HOME WATERS 35

bloater in Lake Ontario. The total catch of all. species of' chubs in

United States waters in 1940 was 2,410,500pounds, whereas even-as

recently as 1934 it had been more than 7 million pounds. With

proper regulation of the fishery, a sustained yield of 501' 6 million

pounds is believed to be attainable.

The chubs may be distinguished from the whitefish by their more

slender body, smaller size, and the greater number of gill-rakers on

the first arch. The young are often confused with the Great Lakes

shiner (one of the true minnows), but may be identified easily by

the presence of a short fleshy fin (the adipose fin) on the top of the

tail 'base. It is extremely difficult to distinguish one species of chub

frorh .another, because the species are very similar and there is, be-'

sides, a considerable amount of individual variation. '

During most of the year the chubs native to a particular lake in-termingle

very freely, feeding together and being caught 'together

in fishermen's nets. As the spawning season for each species ap-proaches,

however, its individuals detach themselves from the

mingled chub population, and seek the customary spawning grounds

of'that particular species. Some chubs spawn in water as shallow

as 5061' 60 feet, .others at .300to 350 feet.

Chubs are' sldw-:gi;owing.fish. The Lake 'Superior Jongjawof

average commercial size is? years old and rweighs only 6ounces.

In Lake 'Michigan, the kiyi attains un average weight' of6 ounces

.in5 years.'. The greatest ages recorded for, three species whose scales

have been examined are 11.years for the longj aw, 8 years for the

.kiyi, and 13 years for the blackfin.

Lake Trout (Cristivomer namaycushJ

The largest trout in North America is the lake trout; a giant mem-ber

of the family that includes the familiar brook and rainbow trouts,

as well as the renowned salmon of' both Atlantic and Pacific coasts.

The lake trout inhabits all five of the Great Lakes and most other large,

lakes from 'New::BrunswickandMaine westward to· Vancouver Is-hind

and north to Alaska, Hudson Bay, and Labrador. In the days

of its great natural abundance it commonly reached a weight of 60

to 100 pounds, but nowadays fishing has so reduced its numbers that

few have an opportunity to grow to the full stature of the race. The

maximum size of the trout now taken is probably about 60 pounds;

while the average weight-of spawning trout in Lake -Michigan is 4~ .

pounds, and in Lake Superior, '7 pounds,

The lake trout ranks second among all Great Lakes fishes in the

poundage it contributes to the commercial fisheries. In 1940,some 10

million pounds of this excellent food fish were taken from United

States waters. The flesh is of very delicate flavor and is particularly

36 CONSERVATiON BULLETIN 34

rich in protein and oil. Baked lake trout is considered· an especial

delicacy. These trout may be purchased whole or in convenient filleted

:form, and sometimes are available smoked.

Lake trout usually spawn on the reefs of honeycomb rock which lie

.10to 15 miles offshore at depths of 6 to 120 feet. The spawning sea-son

occurs during the ordinarily cold and stormy weeks of late Octo-ber

to late November in Lakes Huron and Michigan. Unlike those of

other members of the salmon family, the spawning habits of the lake

trout cannot be observed, but it is supposed that the eggs are allowed

to settle into indentations in the rocks, there to develop somewhat: as

the eggs of other salmonids undergo incubation among the gravels.of

a stream bed.

12.707

Figure 20.-Th~ prized lake trout supports one of the principal Great Lakes fisheries.

The lake trout is an omnivorous' feeder, preying largely upon ot-her

fishes. It was once thought that young whitefish formed its principal

food, and for that reason fishermen opposed its artificial propagation.

This belief is probably unfounded, however, for lake trout return to

deep water immediately' after spawning, while the young whitefish

remain in the shallows. Alewives, yellow perch, whitefish, chubs, and

herrings are their principal items of food. . .• .

A deep-water variant of.th~ lake trout, 'called the' siscowet, -is f;()m.~;

monly found in deep water in Lake Superior, and occurs also in Lake

Michigan and possibly Huron.

Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron furnish by far the. greater

part of the commercial catch. Gill nets, operated from steam, gaso-line,

or oil-burning tugs that set 5 to 7 miles of nets in a day, are the

principal gear of the fishery. During recent years, sport fishermen

have developed a keen interest in' the lake trout as a powerful and

gamy antagonist. Definite figures are not available, but it is believed

that the catch by sportsmen may amount to tens of thousands of

pounds. Since most or all the lake trout so caught are eaten, this

sport fishery represents. no waste of food resource. The combined

FOOD FROM ROME WATEiRS 37

sport and commercial catches are so heavy, however; that noappre-ciable

increase in the yield of this species can be brought about with-out

endangering future supplies.

The Pikes (Genus Esox)

The common pike, Esoe luoius ; the muskellunge, E. ma8quinongy,·

and the pickerels, E. reticulatue and E. oermloulatue, are all pikes

in the language of the scientist, although the sportsman and fisher-mail

know them best by their individual common names. All have

long, broad, and flattened snouts, large mouths, broad bands of inov.•

able teeth on both jaws, and dorsal and anal fins placed far back

on the body near the tail. They may be separated by noticing the

12,701

Figure 21.-Most pike are taken in cold northern waters.

arrangement of scales on the side of the head. In the pickerels, the

cheeks and gill covers are completely scaled; in the pike, the cheeks are

scaled but the lower half of the gill cover is bare ; in the muskellunge

the cheeks, as well as the lower half of the gill cover, are bare. .

The pikes are better known as sport fish than as commercial species.

The yield taken for the market is small (only about 200,000pounds),

but the amount of food derived from this source could probably be

increased somewhat, especially by full utilization of the sportsmen's

catch. The flesh of all the pikes is white, firm, and flaky. It is

marketed whole or filleted, both fresh and frozen. ..." .

.The common pike is the only species of the genus that occurs outside

of North America. This is a fish of wide distribution, inhabiting

rivers that empty into the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Arctic Ocean, as

well as into the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the basin of the

Danube. In North America its range extends from the States bor-dering

the Great Lakes to Alaska and the Arctic Circle. . Like aU

other widely distributed fishes, the pike has acquired a number of com-mon

names which tend to confuse it with its relatives. It is sometimes

called the lake pickerel, and it is the grass pike of Lake Erie and the

jack pike of Canada. Great northern pike or simply northern pike

38 -,,' eONSERVA:TTON BULLETIN 34

are other common:designations. This species is the most abundant of

the four here described and makes up most of the commercial catch

-Iisted as "pike, pickerel, or jacks." Pike weighing from 25 to 30

pounds have been taken in the United States waters of the Great Lakes,

but the average size is considerably smaller.

In the Great Lakes region most of the catch comes, not from the

large lakes, but from Lake of the Woods, Ra.iny Lake, and Namakan

Lake, the three lakes on the boundary of Minnesota and Canada.

Most of the catch is taken in gill nets and pound nets. In addition

to the domestic yield, about 65,000pounds are imported.

The pike has earned a reputation as the most voracious 0.£ fresh-water

fishes, habitually lying in wait in dense beds of grass or rushes

and darting out on its victims with lightning speed. It devours other

fishes, young waterfowl, and smalI mammals without discrimination.

During the spring and summer it prefers shallow inlets with weedy

bottoms, but in autumn is said to resort to deeper water and stony

shores, probably following shoals of other _fishes. The pike is a

solitary hunter, never seen with its fellows except at spawning time.

Being a strong and persistent fighter, the pike is much sought by

- anglers. It is usually taken by trolling with spoon' hooks and other

artificial baits, or with small fish or frogs. Sometimes it is taken by

-still-fishing in deep waters through the ice, orby tip-up fishermen.

Yellow Perch (Perea fJavescens)

Generally voted one of the.best flavored of all fresh-water fishes, the

yellow perch is so well known that it needs no introduction. 'Almost

every angler has at some time taken from his hook this greenish~

golden fish, banded with bars of dusky color. The relatively large

commercial catch (6 million pounds in 1940) makes it a .familiar

market fish in many towns and cities of the MiddleW est. It is an

excellent pan fish, seldom exceeding 12 inches in length or 1-pound in

weight. It may be had whole or in fillets, and is available in good

quantity throughout the year. ! .

Along with its dose relatives, the blue and yellow pike perches and

the sauger (p. 40), the yellow perch belongs to one of the most impor-tant

families of fishes in the Great Lakes. The. combined yield of all

these members of the perch family was about 18 million pounds in

1940,and exceededthat of any other group except the whitefish family.

Chief production centers for the yellow perch of the commercial

fisheries in the Great Lakes are western Lake Erie, Green Bay in

northern Lake Michigan, and Saginaw Bay in Lake Huron. Added to

the 6 million pounds of this excellent food fish which are derived chiefly

from these centers are the unrecorded thousands of perch taken by

.anglers for their own tables from lakes, ponds, and larger rivers all

FOOD FROM' ROiMl)1 WATEIRS 39

over northeastern United States, from the Great Lakes to the upper

Mississippi Valley. "I'ransplantings have considerably extended the

natural range of the yellow perch, so that it now inhabits lakes in such

western States as Washington and California and, is also to be found

in the Ohio River. '

Although it is primarily a lake fish, the yellow perch avoids the

greater depths of the lakes and seldom lives deeper than 100 feet.-

Apparently it prefers shallows and weedy bars, and in the younger

stages may be found in water less than 5 feet deep. It is a sociable

fish, moving about in schools and congregating in thickets of, pond

weeds.i ' '

,. " ':, ' ,"" " , ' :12,8<17

Figure 22.~Everyone ~nows the yellow perch, an appetixing pan fish quick to take the ,hook.

, ' '

Perch apparently have large appetites and are equipped to capture

practically any kind of small water animals. Their gills are so con-structed

that they can strain" microscopic food organisms from the

water, or they can pick water insects from plants or stones or snatch

crayfish from rocky hiding places. If they have an opportunity to

capture larger prey " the backward slant of their teeth aids inholding" " ' -, , ' , " , the struggling victim.' Insects and crustaceans make up the bulk of

their diet,

The remarkable egg masses of the yellow perch are familiar tomany

people who have frequent opportunities to observe the life of the

waters. In April, May, or June, depending on the locality, the adult

fishmoveinto shallow waters where there are weeds,submerged timber,

or other objects to provide anchorage for the eggs. These are extruded

in a peculiar, gelatinous mass which gives theappearance of being

accordion pleated. These egg masses swell on exposure to the water

and frequently become ribbons several feet long. The eggs extruded

by a single female perch may number as many as 90,000.

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40 OOiNISERV ATWN BULLE,T[N 34

. .,I

The young hatch in about 21 days. They spend their first year i~

very shallow water, usually remaining in the shelter of weed beds.

Later they move into deeper parts of the lake or river. According to

studies of Lake Erie perch, they are about 6 inches long at the end of

the second year of life, and attain the most desirable market size (about

9 inches) at the end of the fourth year .

•

Pike Perches (Species of StizostedionJ

The three pike perches are members of the perch family, quite. un-related

to the pikes in spite of their common name. A glance at the

back fins will immediately make this relationship clear, for the. pike

perches, like the yellow perch, have two dorsal fins, the first of which is

Fi,gure 23.-The yellow pike perch is taken in greater quantity than its relatives in'

United States waters.

spiny, the second soft .. The pikes, on the other hand, have a single

dorsal fin, which issoft and is located well back on the body, near

the tail. .

Blue pike perch, yellow' pike perch, and sauger-known collectively'

as the pike perches-. are the largest members of the perch family in

Americanrwaters. They are of considerable importance commer-cially,

1n,1940 the domestic, catch of the blue pike perch, Stieostedion

glaueum, was 5,073,000 pounds; the catch of the yellow pike perch,

S. vitreum, was6,067,000 pounds; and the catch of saugers, S. cana-dense,

was' 696,000 pounds. Imports of these species-especially of

saugers-are considerably in excess of the United States catch. In

1940,we imported from Canada 8,169,000pounds of yellow pike perch,

1,487,000pounds of blue pike perch, and 12,683,000pounds of saugers.

All three are considered excellent food fishes, although the yellow

. and blue pike perches are usually thought to be superior to the sanger.

The flesh is firm, white, and of good flavor,' even in the warmest

FOOD FROM HOME WATERS 41

weather, and the fish stand shipment, holding, or freezing well. The

smaller specimens are suitable for frying or broiling, while the larger

ones are excellent when baked. The bones, although numerous, are

large and easily separated, and little loss occurs in dressing because

of the small size· of the abdominal cavity. The greater part of the

catch of blue pike perch and sanger is filleted.

Most of the commercial catch in Lake Erie consists of fish 11 to 13

inches long" which are 3 to5 years old. The pike perches often live

to a much greater age, however, for readings of the scales have revealed

ages as great as :1.1,13, and 17 years for the blue pike perch, sauger,

and, yellow pike perch, respectively. - .

The pike perches prefer clear water with rock, gravel, sand, or hard

clay bottom. The geographical range of ,the yellow pike perch extends,

along the Atlantic seaboard from Connecticut as far south as North

Carolina, westward to Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, and north -

to Hudson Bay. Over the greater part of this area it is fairly abun-dant,

and assumes commercial importance in the GreatLakes region,

the. Mis~issippi Basin; and .the southern part or the Hudson Bay. sys-teIll..

AJthough'Il~tnative to New Jersey, Connecticut, or eastern

PE}l}llsylvania, it ha~ become acclimated in the Susquehanna andDela-ware

Rivers and in many small lakes in Michigan, furnishingsport for

a large number of an.gl,ets. The range of the sauger is less extensive:

from the Red River of the north and the Assiniboine River, through

the Great Lakes region, west to the upper Missouri and south to Ar-kansas

and Tennessee. The blue pike perch appears to be a deep-water

form, taken commercially only in Lakes Erie and Ontario,

The pike perches are carnivorous feeders, living chiefly on smaller

fish.. crayfish, and insects. Apparently they destroy fewer. of the

species valued by man than do most predatory fishes. As a source of

quantities of excellent food and as highly regarded game. ashes, they

are one of our more valuable fishery resources.. : .

, I' '.

;", I Crappie:s (Pomoxi~ anll'ularisand Po~oxis spproid~s)

The crappies are included in this' accotintorthe Hsh~rY~esources

of the Middle West because they are highly suitable for pond culture,

and may be reared successfully in the thousands of fish ponds which

have been built on farms throughout this area. They areamong the

best of the pan fishes, seldom weighing more than a pound or measur-ing

more than 12 inches in length. The meat. is white, tender, and

of excellent flavor. Pond cultivation of the crappies for home use

makes it possible to 'take the fish from' the water immediately before

they are to be placed in the frying pan, and under such conditions

they become a truly delicious food,

42 OONSERVAT[ON BULLET[N 34

In most States, commercial fishing for crappies is prohibited by

law with a view to reserving these species for the angler, Some

biologists hold that this restriction defeats its purpose, for the crap-

. pies are extremely prolific, reproducing at such a rate that a small

lake quickly becomes crowded with stunted fish that offer little sport.

These biologists believe that a regulated commexcial fishery for crap-pies

and certain other species would not only make available to the

public a considerable quantity of excellent food, but would improve

sport fishing by eliminating overcrowding and giving the fish a

chance to grow to good size. .

12,809

~igure 24.-Crappies can be reared in farm ponds to supplement the family diet.

The white crappie,Pomoxis anmularie, is 'found in ponds, lakes,

creeks, and rivers from New York and Vermont westward through

the Great Lakes region and. the .Mississippi Valley to. the Dakotas and

south .to Texas. It seems to prefer more or less muddy watee.and-in

tlle",~oUF~~rIl,paJ;'t.of.its.range, :grows to a length of about afoot.

Other common names for this species are bachelor, sac-a-lait, chin-quapin.

and white perch, It takes the hook well, especially in the

spring and fall.

The black crappie, Pomoieis sparoides, is also known as the straw-berry

bass. It is abundant in the Great Lakes region and the Missis-

. sippi Valley, and the extremes. of its range lie in New Jersey and

Texas. It is a hardier fish than the white crappie and is even better

adapted to pond culture. The two species may be distinguished

easily by the fact that the white crappie has five or six spines in the

dorsal fin whereas the black has seven or eight.

FOOD "FROM HOME W, A,TERS 43

Bluegill Sunfish llepoinisincisor) ,

The bluegill sunfish is,cqn~id~red the finest of all pondfishes avail-able

for private culture; and is to be recommended above any other

sunfish for artificial propagation. It thrives under' a wide variety of

conditions, is highly prolific, and is a food fish of high quality. Its

flesh is firm, flaky, and of delicious flavor, and it may attain a weight

of about a pound.

Like the crappies (page 41), the sunfishes are reserved by most

States as game fishes, although similar arguments might be advanced,

for opening up a controlled commercial fishery in some localities.

'I

12,818

Figure 2S.-The sunfishes are well adapted to pond culture and are among the .mest '

delicious food fishes. -

The bluegill sunfish is found abundantly in' quiet streams, ponds,

andlakes of the Mississippi Valley and the Gr~at Lakes 'region. In"

the latter area, the many small lakes 'of glacial origin 'seem to provide:

ideal homes for it, but it is also at home in warm and sluggish streams

or in weedy ponds. It is considered an excellent, sport fish, being

game for its size and taking almost any kind of bait. It is pr<~pa-gated

extensively and has been 'widely distributed through artificial

meaps., ' ,, ' ,

Like other sunfishes, the bluegill scoops out a nest, which may meas-ureabout

2 feet across, on the bottom of its pond or stream. The blue--

gills are of more sociable habit than some of their relatives, however,

for colonies of as many as 15 nests have been observed. 'The round,

shallow nests are usually attached to roots and may be grouped about

0'", ,

!"

the base of a tree bf semiaquatic habit, like the willow. Perhaps the

fish are attracted by the shade, as well as by the shelter which the

roots afford. After the eggs are deposited, the male fish drives the .'

female away and mounts guard over the nest. His vigilant care

continues until the eggs hatch, after which he soon leaves the young

to shift for themselves. Most bluegills begin to spawn at the age of

1 year, and raise several broods during a season. '

Bluegill sunfish are often planted in combination with black bass,

for which their numerous young form an abundant supply of food.

Because there is no opportunity for the sunfish population to outstrip

its food supply in such ponds, the bluegills then grow to a size that

makes them very desirable for sport or food purposes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

.. ~ 44 CONSEl•W• A• .,~. 'J1!LON BULLE·TJN 34

ADAMS,CHARLESC., and T. L. HANKINSON. The ecology and economics of Oneida

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illus., 1928.

COKER,ROBERTE. Studies of common fishes of the Mississippi River at Keokuk.

Document No. 1072. Bulletin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XLV,

pp. 141-225, illus., 1930.

--- The bowfin: An old-fashioned fish with a new-found use. Economic Cir-cular

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EVEUMANN,BAUTONW., and H. W. CLARK. Lake Maxinkuckee: A physical and

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FORBES,STEPHENA., and R. E. RICHAUDSON. The fishes of Illinois. Natural His-tory

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GOWANLOcH,JAMES NELSON. Fishes and fishing in Louisiana. Bull. No. 23,

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HANKINSON, T. Lo, and C. L. HUBBS. The establishment of smelt in the Great

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HUBRS,CARLL., and KAULF. LAGLER. Guide to the fishes of the Great Lakes and

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JAMES, M. C. Propagation of pond fishes. Report of the U. S. Commissioner

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KENDALL, WILLIAM C. American catfishes: Habits, culture, and commercial

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--- The pikes: Their geographic distribution, habits, culture, and commercial

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--- The smelts. Bulletin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XLII: p. 217-375,

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LEACH, GLEN C. Artificial propagation of pike perch, yellow perch, and pikes.

Appendix 1, Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for 1927: 27 pp.,

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MOORE,H. F. The burbot:A fresh-water cousin to the cod. Economic Circular

No. 25, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries: 4 pp., illus., 1917.

SCHNEBERGER, EDWABD. The biological and economic importance of the smelt

in Green Bay. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 1936: pp.

139-142, 1937. .

SOHRENKEISEN,RAY. Field book of fresh-water fishes of North America north

of Mexico: i-xii+312 pp., illus., 1938.

SMITH, HUGH M. Fishes of North Caroiina. North Carolina Geological and

. Economic Survey, Vol. II: 453 pp., illus., 1907.

TAYLOR,H. F. The carp: A valuable food resource. Economic Circular No. 31,

U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. 7 pp., illus., 1917.

WHITEMAN, ELIzABETH. Wartime fish cookery. Department of the Interior.

Conservation Bulletin No. 27, 24 pp., illus., 1943.

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