Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Impact Statement Volume 1 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge

              U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mission Statement
The mission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is working
with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife,
plants, and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the
American people.
National Wildlife Refuge Mission Statement
The mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System is to
administer a national network of lands and waters for the
conservation, management, and, where appropriate,
restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their
habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and
future generations of Americans.
—National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997
The comprehensive conservation plan details program planning levels that are
substantially greater than current budget allocations and, as such, is for strategic
planning and program prioritization purposes only. This plan does not constitute a
commitment for staffing increases or funding for future refuge-specific land
acquisitions, construction projects, or operational and maintenance increases.
Cover photos from Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Image Library
Revised
Comprehensive Conservation Plan
and
Environmental Impact Statement
Volume 1
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
August 2009
Prepared by:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Region 7
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
2139 Ski Hill Road
P.O. Box 2139
Soldotna, Alaska 99669-2139
Alaska Regional Office
Division of Conservation Planning & Policy
1011 East Tudor Rd., MS-231
Anchorage, AK 99503
Thank you for participating in our planning process!
Your comments will help us prepare a better plan for the future of Kenai Refuge.
United States Department of the Interior
FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
Regional Office, National Wildlife Refuge System-Alaska
Division of Conservation Planning & Policy
1011 East Tudor Road
Anchorage, Alaska 99503
(907) 786-3357
Dear Reader:
This Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan (Plan) and Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
for the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge will guide management of the Refuge for the next 15 years.
This Plan revises the Refuge’s original comprehensive conservation plan completed in 1985. It outlines
five management alternatives, including our preferred alternative, addresses management issues
raised during public scoping, and presents our evaluation of the impacts associated with implementing
each alternative.
This Plan has been published in two volumes. Volume 1 contains the background, issues, and analysis.
Volume 2 contains the supporting appendices.
This Plan incorporates changes based on comments received on the Draft Plan. Those comments and
our responses are presented in Volume 2, Appendix D. Most comments required only that we clarify
or make minor corrections to the text. Others were more involved. For example, Objective 2.9 was re-written
to remove the population objectives for Dall sheep and mountain goats in response to concerns
expressed by the State of Alaska. Another change was to propose a change in regulations to allow the
Refuge Manager to grant special use permits, for airplane access to normally closed lakes, to
successful applicants in the State’s limited drawing hunt program.
Most people will be unaffected by changes in Refuge management. For example, there will be no
changes to how dog mushing activities can be performed on the Refuge.
Public involvement in the planning process is essential for development of an effective plan. While
there will be no formal public review of this final Plan and EIS, comments on the plan will be
considered until September 28, 2009. Comments should be specific, addressing merits of the
alternatives and adequacy of the analysis. We will consider these comments as we prepare the Record
of Decision. The Record of Decision will complete the comprehensive conservation planning process
for Kenai National Wildlife Refuge.
You may view the Plan or a Summary of the Plan online at:
http://www.r7.fws.gov/nwr/planning/plans.htm or obtain a compact disk with both versions.
Comments and requests for copies of
the Plan, the Summary, or a compact
disk with both should be directed to:
Requests for further information about the
Refuge should be directed to:
Peter Wikoff, Planning Team Leader
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
1011 E. Tudor Road, MS-231
Anchorage, AK 99503
Phone: (907) 786-3357
Email: fw7_kenai_planning@fws.gov
Refuge Manager
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
2139 Ski Hill Road
P.O. Box 2139
Soldotna, Alaska 99669-2139
Phone: (907) 262-7021
Email: kenai@fws.gov
Table of Contents
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan v
Table of Contents
Title Page .............................................................................................................................................................. i
Dear Reader Letter ........................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................................ v
Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... xix
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 Purpose and Need for Action ......................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Planning Context............................................................................................................................ 1-2
1.2.1 The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ............................................................................................ 1-2
1.2.2 The National Wildlife Refuge System ....................................................................................... 1-3
1.2.3 Principles of Refuge Management ............................................................................................. 1-4
1.2.4 Legal and Policy Guidance and State Coordination ................................................................. 1-5
1.2.4.1 Legal Guidance .................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.2.4.2 Policy Guidance .................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.2.4.3 Coordination with the State of Alaska ............................................................................... 1-6
1.3 Planning Area ................................................................................................................................. 1-7
1.3.1 Establishment of Kenai National Wildlife Refuge ................................................................... 1-8
1.4 Refuge Purposes, Vision, and Goals ............................................................................................ 1-11
1.4.1 Refuge Purposes ........................................................................................................................ 1-11
1.4.2 Our Vision for Kenai National Wildlife Refuge....................................................................... 1-11
1.4.3 Refuge Goals ............................................................................................................................... 1-12
1.5 Refuge Overview ........................................................................................................................... 1-13
1.5.1 Historical Perspective ................................................................................................................ 1-13
1.5.2 Refuge Environment ................................................................................................................. 1-15
1.5.2.1 Physical Environment ....................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5.2.2 Biological Environment .................................................................................................... 1-15
1.5.2.3 Human Uses ....................................................................................................................... 1-16
1.6 Special Values ............................................................................................................................... 1-17
1.6.1 Refuge Characteristics Valued by the Public.......................................................................... 1-17
1.6.2 Valued Ecosystems and Places ................................................................................................. 1-17
1.6.2.1 Chickaloon Watershed and Estuary ................................................................................ 1-17
1.6.2.2 Harding Icefield ................................................................................................................. 1-17
1.6.2.3 Kenai River and its Tributaries ....................................................................................... 1-17
1.6.2.4 Lowland Lakes System ..................................................................................................... 1-17
1.6.2.5 Skilak Wildlife Recreation Area ....................................................................................... 1-18
1.6.2.6 Tustumena Lake and its Watershed ................................................................................ 1-18
1.6.2.7 Tustumena-Skilak Benchlands ......................................................................................... 1-18
1.7 The Planning Process ................................................................................................................... 1-21
1.7.1 Preplanning ................................................................................................................................ 1-21
1.7.2 Initiate Public Involvement and Scoping ................................................................................. 1-22
1.7.3 Determine Significant Issues .................................................................................................... 1-26
1.7.4 Develop and Analyze Alternatives ........................................................................................... 1-26
1.7.5 Prepare Draft Plan and Environmental Impact Statement .................................................. 1-26
1.7.6 Prepare and Adopt a Final Plan and Environmental Impact Statement ............................. 1-27
1.7.7 Implement Plan, Monitor, and Evaluate ................................................................................. 1-27
1.7.8 Review and Revise Plan ............................................................................................................ 1-27
1.8 Issues ............................................................................................................................................. 1-27
1.9 Significant Planning Issues .......................................................................................................... 1-32
1.10 References .................................................................................................................................... 1-35
Table of Contents
vi Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
2. Alternatives, Goals, and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Alternatives ..................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 Process Used to Develop Alternatives ....................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Alternatives Considered But Eliminated from Detailed Study .............................................. 2-2
Issue: Crowding on the Upper Kenai River ....................................................................................... 2-2
2.1.3 Elements Common to All Alternatives ...................................................................................... 2-5
2.1.4 Management Direction Common To All Alternatives .............................................................. 2-6
2.1.4.1 Beetle Kill Trees/Fire Safety ............................................................................................. 2-6
2.1.4.2 Cultural Resources Management ...................................................................................... 2-6
2.1.4.3 Existing Oil and Gas Units ................................................................................................. 2-6
2.1.4.4 Integrated Research and Monitoring ................................................................................ 2-6
2.1.4.5 Kenai River Scenic Float Trip Guides ............................................................................... 2-7
2.1.4.6 Land Management Training Facility ................................................................................ 2-7
2.1.4.7 Law Enforcement ................................................................................................................ 2-7
2.1.4.8 Moose Range Meadows Non-Development Easement .................................................... 2-7
2.1.4.9 Skilak Wildlife Recreation Area ......................................................................................... 2-7
2.1.4.10 Subsurface Entitlements to Minerals ................................................................................ 2-7
2.1.4.11 Visitor Center ....................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.4.12 Wildlife/Habitat Restoration .............................................................................................. 2-8
2.1.5 Alternative A—Current Management ....................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.5.1 General Management Direction ......................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.5.2 Management Categories ................................................................................................... 2-11
2.1.5.3 Management Direction Identified By Issue.................................................................... 2-12
2.1.5.4 Funding and Personnel Requirements............................................................................ 2-25
2.1.6 Alternative B ............................................................................................................................... 2-27
2.1.6.1 General Management Direction ....................................................................................... 2-27
2.1.6.2 Management Categories ................................................................................................... 2-27
2.1.6.3 Management Direction Identified By Issue.................................................................... 2-27
2.1.6.4 Funding and Personnel Requirements............................................................................ 2-40
2.1.7 Alternative C ............................................................................................................................... 2-44
2.1.7.1 General Management Direction ....................................................................................... 2-44
2.1.7.2 Management Categories ................................................................................................... 2-44
2.1.7.3 Management Direction Identified By Issue.................................................................... 2-44
2.1.7.4 Funding and Personnel Requirements............................................................................ 2-53
2.1.8 Alternative D .............................................................................................................................. 2-61
2.1.8.1 General Management Direction ....................................................................................... 2-61
2.1.8.2 Management Categories ................................................................................................... 2-61
2.1.8.3 Management Direction Identified By Issue.................................................................... 2-61
2.1.8.4 Funding and Personnel Requirements............................................................................ 2-77
2.1.9 Alternative E — The Preferred Alternative ........................................................................... 2-78
2.1.9.1 General Management Direction ....................................................................................... 2-78
2.1.9.2 Management Categories ................................................................................................... 2-78
2.1.9.3 Management Direction Identified By Issue.................................................................... 2-79
2.1.9.4 Funding and Personnel Requirements............................................................................ 2-95
2.1.10 Comparison of the Alternatives ................................................................................................ 2-97
2.2 Refuge Purposes, Goals, and Objectives ................................................................................... 2-111
2.2.1 Refuge Purpose (i) .................................................................................................................... 2-111
2.2.2 Refuge Purpose (ii)................................................................................................................... 2-130
2.2.3 Refuge Purpose (iii) ................................................................................................................. 2-132
2.2.4 Refuge Purpose (iv) .................................................................................................................. 2-134
2.2.5 Refuge Purpose (v) ................................................................................................................... 2-141
2.2.6 The Wilderness Act Purpose for the Kenai Wilderness Area ............................................. 2-148
2.3 Common Management Direction, Policies, and Guidelines .................................................... 2-150
Table of Contents
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan vii
2.4 Comparison of Previous and New Management Policies and Guidelines ............................. 2-151
2.5 References .................................................................................................................................. 2-162
3. Affected Environment ............................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 Geographic Setting ......................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1 Refuge History ............................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.2 Agreements, Decisions, and Legislation .................................................................................... 3-2
3.1.3 Existing Land Status ................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.1.4 Land Acquisition and Habitat Protection History ................................................................... 3-4
3.2 Physical Environment .................................................................................................................... 3-8
3.2.1 Climate ......................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.2.2 Landforms .................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.2.3 Geology ......................................................................................................................................... 3-9
3.2.4 Oil and Gas Occurrences and Potential .................................................................................... 3-10
3.2.4.1 Swanson River and Soldotna Creek Unit ........................................................................ 3-13
3.2.4.2 Beaver Creek Unit............................................................................................................. 3-14
3.2.4.3 Birch Hill Unit ................................................................................................................... 3-15
3.2.4.4 Wolf Lake Facilities .......................................................................................................... 3-15
3.2.4.5 East Swanson River Satellite Project ............................................................................. 3-16
3.2.4.6 Cook Inlet Region, Inc., Exploratory Drilling ................................................................ 3-17
3.2.4.7 Gas Storage ........................................................................................................................ 3-18
3.2.4.8 Compatibility Determination............................................................................................ 3-18
3.2.5 Environmental Contaminants ................................................................................................... 3-19
3.2.5.1 Contamination from Activities Associated with the Oil and Gas
Industry .............................................................................................................................. 3-19
3.2.5.2 Atmospheric Deposition .................................................................................................... 3-20
3.2.5.3 Biologically Transported Contaminants ......................................................................... 3-20
3.2.5.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Boat Traffic .................................................................... 3-21
3.2.5.5 Other Point and Nonpoint Contaminant Sources Outside the Refuge ............................. 3-21
3.2.6 Water Resources ........................................................................................................................ 3-22
3.2.7 Air Resources ............................................................................................................................. 3-23
3.2.8 Concerns Regarding the Physical Environment .................................................................... 3-24
3.2.8.1 Climate Change ................................................................................................................. 3-24
3.2.8.2 Noise Pollution ................................................................................................................... 3-25
3.2.8.3 Oil and Gas Units Industrial Footprint ........................................................................... 3-27
3.3 Biological Environment ................................................................................................................ 3-29
3.3.1 Ecosystems ................................................................................................................................ 3-29
3.3.2 Landscape Types ........................................................................................................................ 3-29
3.3.2.1 White Spruce ...................................................................................................................... 3-30
3.3.2.2 Black Spruce ...................................................................................................................... 3-30
3.3.2.3 Hemlock .............................................................................................................................. 3-33
3.3.2.4 Hardwood ........................................................................................................................... 3-33
3.3.2.5 Mixed Hardwood-Softwood .............................................................................................. 3-34
3.3.2.6 Subalpine Shrub ................................................................................................................. 3-34
3.3.2.7 Lowland Shrub ................................................................................................................... 3-34
3.3.2.8 Alpine Shrub–Lichen Tundra ........................................................................................... 3-35
3.3.2.9 Wetlands (Fens and Peatlands) ....................................................................................... 3-35
3.3.2.10 Herbaceous and Grass ...................................................................................................... 3-35
3.3.3 Special Terrestrial Habitats ...................................................................................................... 3-35
3.3.3.1 Riparian Habitats .............................................................................................................. 3-35
3.3.3.2 Estuary ............................................................................................................................... 3-36
3.3.3.3 Cliffs ................................................................................................................................... 3-36
3.3.3.4 Islands in Lakes ................................................................................................................. 3-36
3.3.3.5 Gravel and Rock (Outwash Plains, River Floodplains, Alpine Rock) ........................... 3-36
Table of Contents
viii Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
3.3.3.6 Snow, Ice, and Glaciers ..................................................................................................... 3-37
3.3.3.7 Nunataks and Other Unglaciated Areas ......................................................................... 3-37
3.3.4 Lakes and Streams ..................................................................................................................... 3-38
3.3.4.1 Anadromous Fish Streams ............................................................................................... 3-38
3.3.4.2 Resident Fish Streams ...................................................................................................... 3-38
3.3.4.3 Anadromous Lakes ............................................................................................................ 3-38
3.3.4.4 Resident Lakes .................................................................................................................. 3-39
3.3.5 Natural Disturbance Processes ................................................................................................ 3-39
3.3.5.1 Spruce Bark Beetles and Other Insects .......................................................................... 3-39
3.3.5.2 Fires ................................................................................................................................... 3-47
3.3.5.3 Avalanches .......................................................................................................................... 3-48
3.3.5.4 Windstorms ........................................................................................................................ 3-49
3.3.5.5 Flooding .............................................................................................................................. 3-49
3.3.5.6 Earthquakes and Volcanoes ............................................................................................. 3-49
3.3.5.7 Receding Glaciers and Icefields ....................................................................................... 3-50
3.3.6 Concerns Regarding Habitat .................................................................................................... 3-50
3.3.6.1 Habitat Changes Since 1985 ............................................................................................. 3-50
3.3.6.2 Rising Tree Line (Krummholz) ........................................................................................ 3-51
3.3.6.3 Drying Wetlands, Shrinking Lake Surface Area ........................................................... 3-52
3.3.6.4 Lowland Hemlock .............................................................................................................. 3-52
3.3.6.5 Old-Growth Forest ............................................................................................................ 3-53
3.3.6.6 Exotic, Invasive, and Injurious Flora .............................................................................. 3-53
3.3.6.7 Damage and Disturbance Due to Legal and Illegal Use of
Snowmachines and Off-Road Motorized Vehicles .......................................................... 3-54
3.3.7 Wildlife ....................................................................................................................................... 3-56
3.3.7.1 Threatened and Endangered Species .............................................................................. 3-56
3.3.7.2 Species of Special Concern ............................................................................................... 3-57
3.3.7.3 Wildlife ............................................................................................................................... 3-58
3.3.8 Concerns Regarding Wildlife Populations ............................................................................... 3-90
3.3.8.1 Declining Moose Populations............................................................................................ 3-90
3.3.8.2 Status of Brown Bear Populations ................................................................................... 3-91
3.3.8.3 Human Disturbance of Trumpeter Swans ...................................................................... 3-92
3.3.8.4 Abnormal Bills on Black-Capped Chickadees and Other Avifauna .............................. 3-97
3.3.8.5 High Rates of Abnormalities in Wood Frogs .................................................................. 3-98
3.3.8.6 Exotic, Invasive, and Injurious Fauna ............................................................................ 3-98
3.3.8.7 Wildlife Diseases .............................................................................................................. 3-101
3.3.8.8 Diseases that May Emerge in Wildlife Populations ..................................................... 3-101
3.3.8.9 Global Climate Change.................................................................................................... 3-104
3.3.8.10 Cumulative Effects of Anthropogenic Development and Activities ........................... 3-105
3.3.8.11 Effects of Culverts on Fisheries .................................................................................... 3-106
3.3.8.12 Loss of Biodiversity ......................................................................................................... 3-107
3.3.9 Special Designated Areas ........................................................................................................ 3-107
3.3.9.1 Legislative Designations ................................................................................................. 3-108
3.3.9.2 Administrative Designations .......................................................................................... 3-111
3.4 Human Environment .................................................................................................................. 3-112
3.4.1 Local History and Cultural Resources ................................................................................... 3-112
3.4.2 Population ................................................................................................................................ 3-115
3.4.3 Economy ................................................................................................................................... 3-117
3.4.3.1 Employment and Income ................................................................................................ 3-117
3.4.3.2 Economic Significance of Kenai Refuge within the Kenai Peninsula
Borough Economy ........................................................................................................... 3-119
3.4.3.3 Economic Significance of Recreational Visits ............................................................... 3-120
3.4.3.4 Economic Significance of Cook Inlet Commercial Fishing ......................................... 3-120
Table of Contents
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan ix
3.4.4 Access ....................................................................................................................................... 3-121
3.4.4.1 Roads and Seismic Lines ................................................................................................ 3-121
3.4.4.2 Pipelines and Utility Right-of-Ways .............................................................................. 3-125
3.4.4.3 Airplane Landing Areas .................................................................................................. 3-126
3.4.4.4 Snowmachines .................................................................................................................. 3-128
3.4.4.5 Rivers and Trails ............................................................................................................. 3-134
3.4.5 Facilities ................................................................................................................................... 3-136
3.4.5.1 Campgrounds ................................................................................................................... 3-136
3.4.5.2 Cabins ............................................................................................................................... 3-138
3.4.5.3 Interpretation and Environmental Education Facilities ............................................. 3-139
3.4.5.4 Maintenance Facilities .................................................................................................... 3-139
3.4.5.5 Administrative Facilities ................................................................................................. 3-140
3.4.6 Public Uses ............................................................................................................................... 3-140
3.4.6.1 Fishing .............................................................................................................................. 3-141
3.4.6.2 Hunting and Trapping .................................................................................................... 3-144
3.4.6.3 Wildlife Viewing and Photography ................................................................................ 3-148
3.4.6.4 Interpretation and Education ........................................................................................ 3-149
3.4.6.5 Commercial Services ....................................................................................................... 3-150
3.4.6.6 Subsistence ....................................................................................................................... 3-151
3.4.7 Concerns Regarding the Human Environment .................................................................... 3-153
3.4.7.1 Wildland-Urban Interface Management(WUI) ........................................................... 3-153
3.5 Wilderness Values ....................................................................................................................... 3-155
3.5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3-155
3.5.2 The Kenai Wilderness .............................................................................................................. 3-157
3.5.2.1 Size ................................................................................................................................... 3-158
3.5.2.2 Naturalness and Wildness .............................................................................................. 3-158
3.5.2.3 Opportunities for Primitive Recreation ........................................................................ 3-159
3.5.3 Areas Recommended for Wilderness Designation in the 1988 Supplemental
Review ...................................................................................................................................... 3-159
3.5.4 Refuge Units Outside the Designated Kenai Wilderness .................................................... 3-160
3.5.4.1 Two Indians Unit ............................................................................................................. 3-163
3.5.4.2 Pipeline Lowlands Unit ................................................................................................... 3-164
3.5.4.3 Chickaloon Flats Unit ..................................................................................................... 3-164
3.5.4.4 Lark Lake Unit ................................................................................................................ 3-165
3.5.4.5 Oilfields Unit .................................................................................................................... 3-166
3.5.4.6 Research Center Unit ..................................................................................................... 3-166
3.5.4.7 Moose River/Mystery Creek Unit ................................................................................. 3-167
3.5.4.8 Skilak Loop/Lake Unit .................................................................................................... 3-168
3.5.4.9 Headquarters Unit .......................................................................................................... 3-169
3.5.4.10 Tustumena Outlet Unit ................................................................................................... 3-170
3.5.5 Concerns Regarding Wilderness ............................................................................................ 3-171
3.5.5.1 Fire Management Impacts on Naturalness .................................................................. 3-171
3.5.5.2 Impacts of Motorized Use on Opportunities for Solitude............................................ 3-172
3.6 River Values ............................................................................................................................... 3-173
3.6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3-173
3.6.2 Kenai River ............................................................................................................................... 3-174
3.6.2.1 Cultural, Historic, and Prehistoric Values .................................................................... 3-174
3.6.2.2 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-177
3.6.2.3 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-177
3.6.2.4 Recreation Values ............................................................................................................ 3-177
3.6.3 Swanson River .......................................................................................................................... 3-178
3.6.3.1 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-178
3.6.3.2 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-178
Table of Contents
x Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
3.6.3.3 Recreation Values ............................................................................................................ 3-178
3.6.4 Moose River .............................................................................................................................. 3-178
3.6.4.1 Cultural, Historic, and Prehistoric Values .................................................................... 3-179
3.6.4.2 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-179
3.6.4.3 Wildness ............................................................................................................................ 3-179
3.6.4.4 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-179
3.6.4.5 Recreation Values ............................................................................................................ 3-179
3.6.5 Russian River........................................................................................................................... 3-179
3.6.5.1 Cultural, Historic, and Prehistoric Values .................................................................... 3-180
3.6.5.2 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-180
3.6.5.3 Wildness ............................................................................................................................ 3-180
3.6.5.4 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-180
3.6.5.5 Recreation Values ............................................................................................................ 3-180
3.6.6 Chickaloon River / Mystery Creek ......................................................................................... 3-181
3.6.6.1 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-181
3.6.6.2 Wildness ............................................................................................................................ 3-181
3.6.6.3 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-181
3.6.7 Fox River.................................................................................................................................. 3-181
3.6.7.1 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-182
3.6.7.2 Wildness ............................................................................................................................ 3-182
3.6.7.3 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-182
3.6.8 Killey River ............................................................................................................................... 3-182
3.6.8.1 Scenic and Geologic Values ............................................................................................. 3-182
3.6.8.2 Wildness ............................................................................................................................ 3-182
3.6.8.3 Fish and Wildlife Values ................................................................................................. 3-182
3.7 Refuge Infrastructure and Administration .............................................................................. 3-183
3.7.1 Administrative Facilities ......................................................................................................... 3-183
3.7.1.1 Headquarters Area .......................................................................................................... 3-183
3.7.1.2 Remote Facilities ............................................................................................................. 3-184
3.7.1.3 Roads ................................................................................................................................ 3-185
3.7.2 Refuge Staffing ......................................................................................................................... 3-185
3.8 References .................................................................................................................................. 3-186
4. Environmental Consequences ............................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Definition of Terms ......................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 Impact Type ................................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.2.2 Duration of Impact ....................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.3 Intensity of Impact ....................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.4 Context or Scale of Impact .......................................................................................................... 4-3
4.3 Key Indicators and Assumptions................................................................................................... 4-3
4.4 Analyses .......................................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.4.1 Use of Fire as a Management Tool............................................................................................. 4-3
4.4.1.1 Physical Environment ......................................................................................................... 4-4
4.4.1.2 Biological Environment ..................................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1.3 Human Environment ......................................................................................................... 4-14
4.4.2 Swanson River Oil and Gas Unit............................................................................................... 4-21
4.4.2.1 Physical Environment ....................................................................................................... 4-22
4.4.2.2 Biological Environment ..................................................................................................... 4-25
4.4.2.3 Human Environment ......................................................................................................... 4-30
4.4.2.4 River Values ....................................................................................................................... 4-40
4.4.2.5 Wilderness Values ............................................................................................................. 4-42
4.4.3 Beaver Creek Oil and Gas Unit ................................................................................................ 4-44
4.4.3.1 Physical Environment ....................................................................................................... 4-45
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xi
4.4.3.2 Biological Environment .................................................................................................... 4-46
4.4.3.3 Human Environment......................................................................................................... 4-49
4.4.3.4 Wilderness Values ............................................................................................................. 4-52
4.4.4 Mystery Creek Access Road and Pipeline Corridor .............................................................. 4-53
4.4.4.1 Physical Environment ....................................................................................................... 4-54
4.4.4.2 Biological Environment .................................................................................................... 4-62
4.4.4.3 Human Environment......................................................................................................... 4-71
4.4.5 Ski Hill Road ............................................................................................................................... 4-87
4.4.5.1 Physical Environment ....................................................................................................... 4-88
4.4.5.2 Biological Environment .................................................................................................... 4-94
4.4.5.3 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-100
4.4.6 Sterling Highway Pullout ........................................................................................................ 4-103
4.4.6.1 Physical Environment ..................................................................................................... 4-103
4.4.6.2 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-104
4.4.7 Swanson River and Swan Lake Canoe Systems ................................................................... 4-106
4.4.7.1 Physical Environment ..................................................................................................... 4-106
4.4.7.2 Biological Environment .................................................................................................. 4-110
4.4.7.3 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-114
4.4.8 Upper Kenai River (Russian River to Skilak Lake) ............................................................. 4-119
4.4.8.1 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-119
4.4.9 Middle Kenai River (Skilak Lake Downstream to Refuge Boundary) ............................... 4-128
4.4.9.1 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-129
4.4.10 Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness ........................................................... 4-136
4.4.10.1 Biological Environment .................................................................................................. 4-136
4.4.10.2 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-143
4.4.11 Airplane Access to Chickaloon Flats ...................................................................................... 4-152
4.4.11.1 Physical Environment ..................................................................................................... 4-152
4.4.11.2 Biological Environment .................................................................................................. 4-154
4.4.11.3 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-159
4.4.12 Snowmachine Access ............................................................................................................... 4-163
4.4.12.1 Biological Environment .................................................................................................. 4-164
4.4.12.2 Human Environment....................................................................................................... 4-168
4.4.13 Cumulative Impacts ................................................................................................................. 4-173
4.4.13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 4-173
4.4.13.2 Physical Environment ..................................................................................................... 4-173
4.4.13.3 Biological Environment .................................................................................................. 4-179
4.4.13.4 Socioeconomic Environment .......................................................................................... 4-184
4.5 Mitigation .................................................................................................................................... 4-190
4.6 Relationship Between Short-Term Use of the Environment and Long-Term
Productivity ................................................................................................................................ 4-190
4.7 Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources ..................................................... 4-191
4.8 Environmental Justice ................................................................................................................ 4-191
4.9 Section 810 Evaluation ............................................................................................................... 4-192
4.10 Summary Comparison of Environmental Effects ................................................................... 4-193
4.11 References .................................................................................................................................. 4-193
5. Evaluation of the Alternatives............................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Evaluation Criteria ......................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Response to Refuge Purposes ....................................................................................................... 5-1
5.3 Response to National Wildlife Refuge System Mission .............................................................. 5-2
5.4 Response to Refuge Goals .............................................................................................................. 5-2
5.5 Response to Issues .......................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.5.1 How will the Refuge address large-scale habitat changes and the use of fire ....................... 5-3
Table of Contents
xii Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
5.5.2 How will the Refuge manage existing facilities for public use while ensuring
resource protection? ..................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.5.2.1 Swanson River and Beaver Creek Oil and Gas Units ...................................................... 5-3
5.5.2.2 Mystery Creek Access Road and Pipeline Corridor ........................................................ 5-4
5.5.2.3 Trail Planning and Development ....................................................................................... 5-4
5.5.2.4 Ski Hill Road ........................................................................................................................ 5-4
5.5.2.5 Sterling Highway Pullout ................................................................................................... 5-5
5.5.3 How will the Refuge enhance wildlife-dependent recreation opportunities? ......................... 5-5
5.5.3.1 Personal Collection of Natural Resources ........................................................................ 5-5
5.5.3.2 Christmas Tree Harvesting ................................................................................................ 5-5
5.5.4 How will the Refuge manage increasing public use to ensure resource and
visitor-experience protection? ..................................................................................................... 5-5
5.5.4.1 Swanson River and Swan Lake Canoe Systems ............................................................... 5-5
5.5.4.2 Upper Kenai River (Russian River to Skilak Lake) ........................................................ 5-5
5.5.4.3 Middle Kenai River (Skilak Lake Downstream to the Refuge
Boundary) ............................................................................................................................. 5-6
5.5.5 How will the Refuge balance motorized access with resource and visitor-experiences
protection? ............................................................................................................... 5-7
5.5.5.1 Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness ....................................................... 5-7
5.5.5.2 Airplane Access to Chickaloon Flats ................................................................................. 5-7
5.5.5.3 Snowmachine Access ........................................................................................................... 5-7
5.6 Response to Biological Integrity and Ecosystem Management ................................................ 5-8
5.7 Response to Area-Related ADF&G Management Plans .......................................................... 5-10
6. Implementation and Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Regulations ..................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.3 Current Step-Down Plans .............................................................................................................. 6-1
6.3.1 Cabin Management Plan ............................................................................................................. 6-2
6.3.2 Caribou Management Plan .......................................................................................................... 6-2
6.3.3 Fire Management Plan ................................................................................................................ 6-2
6.3.4 Fishery Management Plan .......................................................................................................... 6-2
6.3.5 Furbearer Management Plan ..................................................................................................... 6-2
6.3.6 Kenai Peninsula Brown Bear Conservation Strategy .............................................................. 6-2
6.3.7 Kenai River Comprehensive Management Plan ....................................................................... 6-3
6.3.8 Kenai River Easement Management Strategy ......................................................................... 6-3
6.3.9 Moose Management Plan ............................................................................................................ 6-3
6.3.10 Skilak Wildlife Recreation Area Management Plan ................................................................. 6-3
6.3.11 Swanson River and Swan Lake Road Visitor Facilities Rehabilitation .................................. 6-4
6.3.12 Upper Kenai River Commercial Visitor Services Management Strategy ............................. 6-4
6.3.13 Upper Kenai River Cooperative Plan ........................................................................................ 6-4
6.3.14 Wolf Management Operational Plan .......................................................................................... 6-4
6.3.15 Land Protection Plan ................................................................................................................... 6-4
6.4 Future Step-Down Plans ................................................................................................................ 6-5
6.4.1 Terrestrial and Aquatic Invasive Species Management Plan.................................................. 6-5
6.4.2 Sqilantnu Archeological District Management Plan ................................................................ 6-5
6.4.3 Stepanka Archeological District Management Plan ................................................................ 6-5
6.4.4 Kenai Law Enforcement Operations Plan ................................................................................. 6-5
6.4.5 Kenai Trails Needs Assessment and Management Plan ......................................................... 6-5
6.4.6 Kenai Refuge Sign Plan ............................................................................................................... 6-5
6.4.7 Kenai Wilderness Stewardship Plan .......................................................................................... 6-6
6.4.8 Wildland Fire Monitoring Plan ................................................................................................... 6-6
6.4.9 Wildlife Inventory and Monitoring Plan .................................................................................... 6-6
6.4.10 Research Natural Areas Management Plan .............................................................................. 6-6
Table of Contents
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xiii
6.5 Partnership Opportunities ............................................................................................................. 6-6
6.5.1 Existing Partnerships .................................................................................................................. 6-7
6.5.1.1 Biological Partnerships ....................................................................................................... 6-7
6.5.1.2 Sterling Highway Partnership ........................................................................................... 6-7
6.5.1.3 Christmas Bird Count Partnership ................................................................................... 6-8
6.5.1.4 Long Term Ecological Monitoring Partnership ............................................................... 6-8
6.5.1.5 Alaska Landscape Cumulative Effects Partnership ........................................................ 6-8
6.5.1.6 Invasive Species Partnership ............................................................................................. 6-8
6.5.1.7 University Partnerships ..................................................................................................... 6-8
6.5.1.8 Visitor Contact Partnerships .............................................................................................. 6-9
6.5.1.9 Environmental Education and Outreach Partnerships ................................................... 6-9
6.6 Monitoring and Evaluation ............................................................................................................ 6-9
6.7 Plan Amendment and Revision ...................................................................................................... 6-9
6.8 Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................... 6-10
6.9 Reference .......................................................................................................................................... 46
7. Consultation and Coordination with Others ........................................................................................ 7-1
7.1 Section 7 Compliance ...................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 Memorandums of Understanding and Agreement ...................................................................... 7-1
7.3 Consistency with the Alaska Coastal Management Program/Kenai Peninsula
Borough Coastal Management Plan ............................................................................................. 7-3
Appendices ~ Volume 2
A Legal Guidance and Planning Coordination
B Coordination with the State of Alaska
C Management Direction, Policies, and Guidelines
D Comments Received and Our Response to Comments
E Easements and Right-of-Ways
F Species List
G Assessing River Values—Methodology and Results
H Preparers
I Mailing List
J Glossary
Table of Contents
xiv Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Tables ~ Volume 1
Table 1-1. Location, Attendance, and Dates of Public Meetings .......................................................... 1-22
Table 1-2. Wildlife and Habitat-Related Concerns Identified During Scoping .................................. 1-23
Table 1-3. Recreation-Related Concerns Identified During Scoping .................................................. 1-24
Table 1-4. Crowding-Related Concerns Identified During Scoping .................................................... 1-24
Table 1-5. Facilities-Related Concerns Identified During Scoping ..................................................... 1-25
Table 1-6. Access-Related Concerns Identified During Scoping ......................................................... 1-25
Table 1-7. Addressing Issues Raised During Scoping ........................................................................... 1-29
Table 2-1. Differences Between Traditional and Minimal Management Under
Alternative A ............................................................................................................................ 2-12
Table 2-2. Alternative A Budget Needs .................................................................................................. 2-25
Table 2-3. Alternative A Staffing Needs Beyond Current Levels ....................................................... 2-26
Table 2-4. Alternative B Budget Needs Beyond Current Levels ......................................................... 2-43
Table 2-5. Alternative B Staffing Needs Beyond Current Levels ....................................................... 2-43
Table 2-6. Alternative C Budget Needs Beyond Current Levels ......................................................... 2-54
Table 2-7. Alternative C Staffing Needs Beyond Current Levels ....................................................... 2-54
Table 2-8. Alternative D Budget Needs Beyond Current Levels ........................................................ 2-77
Table 2-9. Alternative D Staffing Needs beyond Current Levels ........................................................ 2-78
Table 2-10. Alternative E Budget Needs Beyond Current Levels ........................................................ 2-95
Table 2-11. Alternative E Staffing Needs beyond Current Levels ........................................................ 2-96
Table 2-12. Comparison of the Alternatives Identified By Issue and Management
Action ....................................................................................................................................... 2-97
Table 2-13. Comparison of Current and New Management Direction (Alternative A
compared with Alternatives B – E) ......................................................................................2-152
Table 3-1. The 18 Landscape Types on the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge ...................................... 3-29
Table 3-2. Population spike in the Kenai area following the first major oil strike
(1957) .......................................................................................................................................3-116
Table 3-3. Population changes in selected communities, Kenai Peninsula Borough .........................3-116
Table 3-4. Economic significance of Kenai Refuge-dependent activities (1997 and
2004) ........................................................................................................................................3-120
Table 3-5. Roads within Kenai National Wildlife Refuge .....................................................................3-122
Table 3-6. Dates and season of snowmachine use (1976 - 2006) ...........................................................3-130
Table 3-7. River Access within the Kenai Refuge .................................................................................3-135
Table 3-8. Trails within Kenai National Wildlife Refuge .....................................................................3-137
Table 3-9. Campgrounds ..........................................................................................................................3-138
Table 3-10. Public use cabins .....................................................................................................................3-138
Table 3-11. Maintenance facilities .............................................................................................................3-140
Table 3-12. Facilities located at the headquarters area .........................................................................3-183
Table 3-13. Remote facilities .....................................................................................................................3-184
Table 4-1. Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness Listed By
Alternative ...............................................................................................................................4-149
Table 4-2. Summary Comparison of the Effects of Implementing the Alternatives .........................4-194
Table 5-1. Evaluation of the Alternatives Based on Significant Planning Issues ................................. 5-9
Table 6-1. Biological Inventorying and Monitoring Plan ...................................................................... 6-12
Table 6-2. Public Use Inventorying and Monitoring Plan .................................................................... 6-34
Table of Contents
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xv
Tables ~ Volume 2
Table C-1. Activities, Public Uses, Commercial Uses, and Facilities by Management
Category .................................................................................................................................. C-46
Table E-1. State Claimed RS 2477 Routes within the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge .......................E-5
Table E-2. Active Right-of-Way Permits ...................................................................................................E-6
Table G-1. Attributes and Measurements Used To Conduct Outstandingly
Remarkable Value Assessment ............................................................................................... G-7
Table G-2. Kenai River Evaluation ............................................................................................................ G-8
Table G-3. Moose River Evaluation ........................................................................................................... G-9
Table G-4. Russian River Evaluation ....................................................................................................... G-10
Table G-5. Killey River Evaluation .......................................................................................................... G-11
Table G-6. Swanson River Value .............................................................................................................. G-12
Table G-7. Fox River Evaluation .............................................................................................................. G-13
Table G-8. Chickaloon River Evaluation ................................................................................................. G-14
Table G-9. Comparison of River Values Evaluation ............................................................................... G-15
Figures ~ Volume 1
Figure 1-1. National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska ........................................................................................ 1-3
Figure 1-2. State of Alaska Game Management Unit 15 ............................................................................ 1-7
Figure 1-3. Location of Kenai National Wildlife Refuge ............................................................................ 1-9
Figure 1-4. Special Values of Kenai National Wildlife Refuge ................................................................ 1-19
Figure 1-5. The Planning Process .............................................................................................................. 1-21
Figure 2-1. Alternative A - Current Management Categories .................................................................. 2-9
Figure 2-2. Alternative A - Current Fire Management ........................................................................... 2-13
Figure 2-3. Alternative A - Current Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated
Wilderness North of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................... 2-19
Figure 2-4. Alternative A - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness South
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-21
Figure 2-5. Alternative A - Current Chickaloon Flats Airplane Access ................................................. 2-23
Figure 2-6. Alternative B - Management Categories ............................................................................... 2-29
Figure 2-7. Alternative B - Fire Management .......................................................................................... 2-31
Figure 2-8. Alternative B - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness North
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-35
Figure 2-9. Alternative B - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness South
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-37
Figure 2-10. Alternative B - Chickaloon Flats Airplane Access ................................................................ 2-41
Figure 2-11. Alternative C - Management Categories ............................................................................... 2-45
Figure 2-12. Alternative C - Fire Management .......................................................................................... 2-47
Figure 2-13. Alternative C - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness North
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-55
Figure 2-14. Alternative C - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness South
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-57
Figure 2-15. Alternative C - Chickaloon Flats Airplane Access ................................................................ 2-59
Figure 2-16. Alternative D - Management Categories ............................................................................... 2-63
Figure 2-17. Alternative D - Fire Management .......................................................................................... 2-65
Figure 2-18. Alternative D - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness North
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-71
Figure 2-19. Alternative D - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness South
of the Sterling Highway ........................................................................................................... 2-73
Figure 2-20. Alternative D - Chickaloon Flats Airplane Access ............................................................... 2-75
Figure 2-21. Alternative E - Preferred Management Categories ............................................................. 2-81
Table of Contents
xvi Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Figure 2-22. Alternative E - Preferred Fire Management ....................................................................... 2-83
Figure 2-23. Alternative E - Preferred Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated
Wilderness North of the Sterling Highway .......................................................................... 2-89
Figure 2-24. Alternative E - Airplane Access to Lakes in Designated Wilderness South
of the Sterling Highway .......................................................................................................... 2-91
Figure 2-25. Alternative E - Preferred Chickaloon Flats Airplane Access ............................................ 2-93
Figure 3-1. Existing Land Status ................................................................................................................ 3-5
Figure 3-2. Location of Oil and Gas Units and Related Features .......................................................... 3-11
Figure 3-3. Attenuation of noise (dB) generated by motor vehicle traffic on Sterling
Highway in different cover types ........................................................................................... 3-26
Figure 3-4. Major Landcover ..................................................................................................................... 3-31
Figure 3-5. Aquatic Habitat Classes.......................................................................................................... 3-41
Figure 3-6. Spruce Bark Beetle Infestation ............................................................................................. 3-43
Figure 3-7. Fire History (1709-2007) ......................................................................................................... 3-45
Figure 3-8. Historical return intervals between wildfires and spruce bark beetle
outbreaks on the Kenai Peninsula ......................................................................................... 3-47
Figure 3-9. Aerial waterfowl counts and trend on three transects on the Kenai
National Wildlife Refuge since 1964 (USFWS Division of Migratory
Bird Management data) ......................................................................................................... 3-59
Figure 3-10. The number of swan nests inside (blue) and outside (red) the boundaries
of the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge since 1957 (Kenai National Wildlife
Refuge unpublished data) ....................................................................................................... 3-59
Figure 3-11. Active and successful bald eagle nests on the Kenai Refuge since 1979............................ 3-62
Figure 3-12. Avian species richness by vegetation type on the Kenai Refuge........................................ 3-63
Figure 3-13. Black bear harvest on the Kenai Peninsula since 1973 (ADF&G
preliminary data) ..................................................................................................................... 3-65
Figure 3-14. Locations of Brown Bears Have Been Killed in Defense of Life or
Property (1990-1999) ............................................................................................................... 3-67
Figure 3-15. Mortality of brown bears due to hunting and defense-of-life-or-property
on the Kenai Peninsula since 1973 (ADF&G data) .............................................................. 3-69
Figure 3-16. Minimum wolf population estimate and reported harvest on the Kenai
National Wildlife Refuge since 1972 ...................................................................................... 3-70
Figure 3-17. Wolverine Harvest on the Kenai Peninsula by Drainage (1984-2001) ............................... 3-73
Figure 3-18. Snowshoe hare pellet counts on five monitoring grids since 1983 ...................................... 3-79
Figure 3-19. Trumpeter Swan Nesting Locations (1957-2007) ................................................................. 3-95
Figure 3-20. Special Designated Areas ......................................................................................................3-109
Figure 3-21. Kenai Peninsula Borough Salary Percentages by Employment Type, 2003 ...................3-118
Figure 3-22. Kenai Peninsula Borough Average Monthly Incomes, by Industry (2003) ......................3-119
Figure 3-23. Points of Access ......................................................................................................................3-123
Figure 3-24. Snowmachine Access ..............................................................................................................3-131
Figure 3-25. Mean number of hourly snowmachine detections at five locations on the
southern Kenai Peninsula (February 11, 2005–March 7, 2005) .........................................3-133
Figure 3-26. Boat angling counts on the upper Kenai River (summer season) .....................................3-143
Figure 3-27. Moose Harvest on Game Management Units within Kenai Refuge (1984–
2005) ........................................................................................................................................3-145
Figure 3-28. Black Bear Harvest on Game Management Units within Kenai Refuge
(1985–2004) ..............................................................................................................................3-145
Figure 3-29. Brown Bear Harvest on Game Management Units within Kenai Refuge
(1985–2005) ..............................................................................................................................3-146
Figure 3-30. Dall Sheep Harvest on Game Management Units within Kenai Refuge
(1985–2005) ..............................................................................................................................3-146
Figure 3-31. Wolf Harvest on Game Management Units within Kenai Refuge (1985–
2005) ........................................................................................................................................3-147
Table of Contents
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xvii
Figure 3-32. Average trapping harvest on Kenai Refuge ........................................................................ 3-148
Figure 3-33. Wilderness Value Inventory Units ....................................................................................... 3-161
Figure 3-34. Rivers Containing Outstandingly Remarkable Values ...................................................... 3-175
Figures ~ Volume 2
Figure E-1. Easements and Indentifed RS-2477s ......................................................................................E-3
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xviii
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ADCED Alaska Department of Community and Economic
Development
ADEC Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
ADF&G Alaska Department of Fish & Game
ADGGS Alaska Division of Geological and Geographical
Surveys
ADNR Alaska Department of Natural Resources
ADOT Alaska Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities
ADTPF Alaska Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities
AFS Alaska Fire Service
ALCES Alaska Landscape Cumulative Effects Simulator
ALMS Alaska Landbird Monitoring Survey
ANCSA Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act
ANHA Alaska Natural History Association
ANILCA Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act
AO authorized officer
AOGCC Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission
AQRV air quality-related values
ATV all-terrain vehicle
AWFCG Alaska Wildland Fire Coordinating Group
BAER Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation
BBS Breeding Bird Survey
BLM Bureau of Land Management
BLM/AFS Bureau of Land Management Alaska Fire Service
Borough Kenai Peninsula Borough
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(mad cow disease)
CAFF Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xix
CAP Contaminants Assessment Process
CBC Christmas Bird Count
CDC Center for Disease Control
CDV Canine Distemper Virus
CE categorical exclusion
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
cfs cubic feet per second
CIRI Cook Inlet Region, Inc.
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
CJD Creutzfelt-Jacob disease
Conservation Fund Land and Water Conservation Fund
CPV Canine Parvovirus
CWD chronic wasting disease
dB decibels
DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DEC Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DLP defense-of-life-or-property
DNR Alaska Department of Natural Resources
DOI Department of the Interior
E-SRS Project East Swanson River Satellite Natural Gas
Exploration and Development Project
e.g. exemplia gratia – for example
EA Environmental Assessment
EIN easement identification number
EIA environmental impact analysis
EIS environmental impact statement
EO executive order
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
Acronyms and Abbreviations
xx Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Et al. et alia – and others
Etc. et cetera – and others, especially of the same kind
et seq et sequens – and the following one
F Fahrenheit
FIA Forest Inventory and Analysis
FIP feline infectious peritonitis
FMH Fire Monitoring Handbook
FMO Fire Management Officer
FPA Fire Program Analysis
FPV feline panleukopenia virus
FRCC Fire Regime/Condition Class
ft. foot/feet (per context)
FY fiscal year
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GMU game management unit
HCH hexachlorocyclohexane
HPS hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
I&M Plan Inventorying and Monitoring Plan
IACUC Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
IBBST Interagency Brown Bear Study Team
i.e. id est – that is
IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments
Improvement Act National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act
of 1997
Inc. incorporated
IPM integrated pest management
ISER Institute for Social and Economic Research
(University of Alaska)
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xxi
IUP Incidental Use Permits
Kenai Refuge Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
KFWFO Kenai Fish and Wildlife Field Office
KP-CWMA Kenai Peninsula Cooperative Weed Management
Area
KRSMA Kenai River Special Management Area
LAC Limits-of-Acceptable-Change
LMRD Land Management Research Demonstration Site
LTEMP Long-Term Ecological Monitoring Program
mcf equals 1,000 cubic feet
MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MRA Minimum Requirements Analyses
MRC Kenai Moose Research Center
NAAQS National Atmospheric Air Quality Standards
NABCI North American Bird Conservation Initiative
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service
No. number
NPS National Park Service
NRCS Natural Resource Conservation Service
NWR National Wildlife Refuge
ORV off-road vehicle
Pad ES-A East Swanson Pad A
Pad ES-B East Swanson Pad B
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Acronyms and Abbreviations
xxii Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation
Peninsula Kenai Peninsula
Plan Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Revised
Comprehensive Conservation Plan
PLO public land order
PM 2.5 particulate matter up to 2.5 microns in diameter
PSD prevention of significant deterioration
Range Kenai National Moose Range
RARE II Roadless Area Review and Evaluation
RAW Remote Automated Weather Station
Refuge Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
Refuge System National Wildlife Refuge System
Refuge System Administration Act National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act
(also as “Refuge Administration Act”)
Refuge System Improvement Act National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act
(also as “Refuge Improvement Act”)
RM river mile
RNA Research Natural Area
ROD Record of Decision
RONS Refuge Operational Needs System
RS-2477 Revised Statute 2477 (codified as U.S.C. 932); refers
to potential established rights-of-way for
construction of highways over public lands not
reserved for public use
SAMMS Service Asset Maintenance Management System
Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
SNAP Scenarios Network for Alaska Planning
SOA DOTPF State of Alaska Department of Transportation
and Public Facilities
System National Wildlife Refuge System
TFM Technical Fire Management
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan xxiii
TPH total petroleum hydrocarbon
TSE transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
TUS Transportation and Utility Systems In and Across,
and Access Into, Conservation System Units
U.S.C. United States Code
USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
USGS-BRD U.S. Geological Survey-Biological Resources
Division
WNV West Nile Virus
WRA wildlife recreation area
Chapter 1: Introduction
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-1
1. Introduction
This document describes five alternatives for revising the
Comprehensive Conservation Plan (Plan) for management of Kenai
National Wildlife Refuge (Kenai Refuge, Refuge) and assesses the
effects of implementing each of the options. When this revised Plan is
finalized, it will replace the management direction for Kenai Refuge
described in the existing Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan
(USFWS 1985a) and associated Record of Decision (USFWS 1985b)
adopted in 1985.
This chapter provides background information that establishes the
framework used to develop this document. Section 1.1 describes why the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) is revising the existing Plan.
Section 1.2 provides information on the National Wildlife Refuge System
and the laws, policies, and guidance that set the stage for management
direction. Section 1.3 identifies the area covered by this planning effort,
and section 1.4 identifies the purposes, vision, and goals specific to Kenai
Refuge. A brief overview of the Refuge is provided in section 1.5, and its
special values are identified in section 1.6. More detailed discussion of the
Refuge is provided in Chapter 3. Section 1.7 provides information on the
steps undertaken in this planning effort to date and about the steps that
are to follow as public comments are used to develop a Final
Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS). Section 1.8 describes how the Service determined
which issues would be addressed in this plan and section 1.9 identifies the
five significant planning issues that are addressed in the alternatives.
1.1 Purpose and Need for Action
The purpose of this proposed planning action is to develop a Revised
Comprehensive Conservation Plan (Revised Plan) for Kenai National
Wildlife Refuge located in southcentral Alaska. The Refuge’s original
plan, developed in 1985, provided broad policy guidance and established
long-term goals for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service management of the
Refuge. As directed by Section 304(g) of the Alaska National Interest
Lands Conservation Act of 1980 (ANILCA), the Refuge System
Administration Act of 1966 as amended by the National Wildlife Refuge
System Improvement Act of 1997, and the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) as amended, Kenai Refuge’s Plan is being
revised to guide the management direction of the Refuge for the next 15
years. Revising the plan allows us to incorporate changing public
interests, new scientific information, and revised management direction.
In general, a comprehensive conservation plan serves to do the following:
 Ensure that the purposes for which the refuge was established and
the mission of the Refuge System are being fulfilled
Chapter 1: Introduction
1-2 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
 Ensure that national policy is incorporated into the management of
the Refuge
 Provide continuity in refuge management
 Ensure that opportunities are available for interested parties to
participate in the development of management direction
 Provide a systematic process for making and documenting refuge
decisions
 Establish a long-term vision for the refuge
 Establish management goals and objectives
 Define compatible uses
 Provide a basis for evaluating accomplishments
 Provide a basis for budget requests
This document includes a draft Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
for the Revised Plan. It describes current management (Alternative A)
plus four action alternatives for managing the Refuge (including the
Service’s Preferred Alternative—Alternative E). The Plan includes a
description of the Refuge’s existing environment (chapter 3) and an
assessment of the effects of implementing each of the alternatives
(chapter 4). Each alternative provides choices for addressing
management concerns and for resolving public issues. After public
review, the Service will evaluate comments on this draft, will make
necessary revisions (which could include making changes to the
alternatives), will select one of the alternatives, and will publish a Final
Comprehensive Conservation Plan and EIS.
1.2 Planning Context
The Kenai National Wildlife Refuge is part of a national system of more
than 545 refuges. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service places an emphasis
on managing individual refuges in a manner that reflects the National
Wildlife Refuge System (System, Refuge System) mission. As a result,
the Revised Plan must also contribute to meeting the overall System
mission and goals.
1.2.1 The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) is the principal Federal
agency responsible for conserving, protecting, and enhancing fish,
wildlife, plants, and their habitats for the continuing benefits of the
American people. In addition to the National Wildlife Refuge System
the Service also operates national fish hatcheries, fishery resource
offices, and Ecological Services field stations. The Service enforces
Federal wildlife laws, administers the Endangered Species Act,
manages migratory bird populations, restores nationally significant
fisheries, conserves and restores wildlife habitat such as wetlands, and
helps foreign governments with their conservation efforts. It also
oversees the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration program, which
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-3
distributes to State fish and wildlife agencies hundreds of millions of
dollars derived from excise taxes on fishing and hunting equipment.
The mission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is:
Working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants,
and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people.
1.2.2 The National Wildlife Refuge System
The National Wildlife Refuge System comprises more than 96 million
acres of Federal lands, which encompass more than 545 national wildlife
refuges, thousands of small wetlands, and other special management
areas. The areas within the System are located in all 50 states and the
territories of the United States. The System was created to conserve fish,
wildlife, plants, and their habitats. This conservation mission includes
providing Americans with opportunities to participate in compatible
wildlife-dependent recreation on System lands and to better appreciate
the value of and need for fish and wildlife conservation.
Alaska contains 16 national wildlife refuges (Figure 1-1). These refuge
lands contain a wide range of habitats with varied terrain that includes
mountains, glaciers, tundra, grasslands, wetlands, lakes, woodlands,
and rivers. Together, the 16 refuges comprise 76.8 million acres and
constitute about 80 percent of the National Wildlife Refuge System.
The mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System is:
To administer a national network of lands and waters for the
conservation, management, and, where appropriate, restoration of the
fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United
States for the benefit of present and future generations of Americans
(National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, as amended).
Figure 1-1. National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska
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1-4 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
1.2.3 Principles of Refuge Management
The National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, as amended,
states that each refuge shall be managed to fulfill both the mission of
the Refuge System and the purposes for which the individual refuge
was established. It also requires that any use of a refuge be a
compatible use—a use that will not materially interfere with nor detract
from, in the sound professional judgment of the refuge manager,
fulfillment of the mission of the System or the purposes of the refuge.
The 1997 amendments to the National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act of 1966 identified a number of principles to guide
management of the Refuge System. They include the following:
 Conserve fish, wildlife, and plants, and their habitats within the
System
 Maintain the biological integrity, diversity, and environmental
health of the System
 Coordinate, interact, and cooperate with adjacent landowners and
State fish and wildlife agencies
 Maintain adequate water quantity and water quality to meet refuge
and System purposes and acquire necessary water rights
 Maintain hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, wildlife
photography, interpretation, and environmental education as the
priority general public uses of the System
 Provide opportunities for compatible priority wildlife-dependent
public uses within the System
 Provide enhanced consideration for priority wildlife-dependent
public uses over other general public uses in planning and
management
 Provide increased opportunities for families to experience priority
general public uses, especially traditional outdoor activities such as
fishing and hunting
 Monitor the status and trends of fish, wildlife, and plants in each
refuge
This Act provided that compatible wildlife-dependent recreational uses
are the priority general public uses of the System and shall receive
priority consideration in refuge planning and management. These uses
include hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, wildlife photography,
interpretation, and environmental education,
To maintain the health of individual refuges, and the National Wildlife
Refuge System as a whole, managers must anticipate future conditions.
Managers must endeavor to avoid adverse impacts and take positive
actions to conserve and protect refuge resources. Effective
management also depends on acknowledging resource relationships and
acknowledging that refuges are parts of larger ecosystems. Refuge
managers work together with partners—including other refuges,
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-5
Federal and State agencies, tribal and other governments, Native
organizations and entities, and nongovernmental organizations and
groups—to protect, conserve, enhance, or restore all native fish, wildlife
(including invertebrates), plants, and their habitats.
1.2.4 Legal and Policy Guidance and State Coordination
Refuge management is dictated, in large part, by the legislation that
created the unit and its purposes and goals. However, other laws,
regulations, policies and, in the case of Alaska refuges, agreements with
the State, also guide management. This section identifies the acts and
the policy guidance that are integral in the development of this Plan.
1.2.4.1 Legal Guidance
Operation and management of refuges throughout the System are
influenced by a wide array of laws, treaties, and executive orders.
Among the most important are the National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act, as amended by the National Wildlife Refuge
System Improvement Act; the Refuge Recreation Act; the Endangered
Species Act; and the Wilderness Act. Acts and treaties specific to Kenai
Refuge are described briefly in Volume 2, Appendix A.
For national wildlife refuges in Alaska, the Alaska National Interest
Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA), as amended, provides key
management direction. ANILCA sets forth the purposes of the refuge,
defines provisions for planning and management, and authorizes
studies and programs related to wildlife and wildland resources,
subsistence opportunities, and recreation and economic uses. ANILCA
also provides specific direction for the management of designated
Wilderness areas and Wilderness Study Areas in the State of Alaska.
How ANILCA influences management of the refuge is described
throughout this document.
1.2.4.2 Policy Guidance
Programmatic guidance and policy documents provide additional
direction for the management of national wildlife refuges. These
documents include the following:
 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Manual chapters
 Director’s orders
 National policy issuances
 Handbooks
 Director’s memoranda
 Regional directives
Although it is not practical to provide information about all these
documents in this Plan, they are important to management of the
Refuge. Much of the management direction described throughout this
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1-6 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
plan is influenced by guidance from these programmatic and policy
documents.
Several of these documents direct that an ecosystem approach be used
in Refuge management. In other words, we must consider the health
of both living and nonliving components when managing the Refuge.
This concept requires close coordination with others. In Volume 2,
Appendix A provides a brief description of this concept and of several
national and regional management plans and programs that were
considered during the development of this Plan. Other key policies,
such as the Compatibility Policy, are described in later chapters, as
they provide guidance in the Plan.
1.2.4.3 Coordination with the State of Alaska
In 1982, the Service and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game
(ADF&G) signed a Master Memorandum of Understanding that defines
the cooperative management roles of each agency and sets the framework
for cooperation between the two agencies (Volume 2, Appendix B). From
that agreement, the following policy statements were developed:
1. ADF&G has the primary responsibility for managing fish and
resident wildlife populations in the State.
2. On refuge lands, ADF&G is to manage fish and resident wildlife
populations in their natural species diversity.
3. On refuge lands, the Service and ADF&G share a concern for all
fish and wildlife resources and their habitats, and both agencies are
engaged in extensive fish and wildlife conservation, management,
and protection programs.
4. The refuge is to conserve fish and wildlife, and their habitats, and to
regulate human use on refuge lands.
Additional management responsibilities are also identified in the
memorandum. The State of Alaska establishes fishing, hunting, and
trapping regulations throughout the State at the direction of the Alaska
Boards of Fisheries and Game. These regulations apply to Federal
public lands unless superseded by Federal regulations. The State is
divided into 26 game management units (GMUs); most of these are
further divided into game management subunits (GMSs). Management
objectives are developed for populations within the GMUs. All of Kenai
Refuge’s lands lie within GMU 7, 15A, 15B, or 15C (Figure 1-2).
The Alaska Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and its divisions
are also key management partners with all refuges in Alaska. DNR
manages all State-owned land, water, and surface and subsurface
resources except for fish and game.
Additional information about key State programs is provided in Volume
2, Appendix B.
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-7
Figure 1-2. State of Alaska Game Management Unit 15
1.3 Planning Area
The planning area for the development of the Revised Plan
encompasses the entire 1.98-million acre Kenai National Wildlife
Refuge located in southcentral Alaska (Figure 1-3). The Refuge is
located on the 5-million acre Kenai Peninsula (Peninsula) and is
bordered on the north by Chickaloon Bay; on the east by the Chugach
National Forest and Kenai Fjords National Park; on the south by
Kachemak Bay; and on the west by Cook Inlet. The Refuge is bordered
by a number of communities, including Hope to the northeast; Cooper
Landing to the east; Seward to the southeast, Homer to the southwest;
Ninilchik, Soldotna, and Kenai to the east; and Sterling in the center.
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1-8 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
1.3.1 Establishment of Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
Franklin D. Roosevelt established the Kenai National Moose Range
(Moose Range) on December 16, 1941, for the purpose of “. . . protecting
the natural breeding and feeding range of the giant Kenai moose on the
Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, which in this area presents a unique wildlife
feature and an unusual opportunity for the study, in its natural
environment, of the practical management of a big-game species that
has considerable local economic value…” (Executive Order 8979).
ANILCA substantially affected the Moose Range by modifying its
boundaries and broadening its purposes from moose conservation to
protection and conservation of a broad array of fish, wildlife, habitats,
other resources, and educational and recreational opportunities.
ANILCA also redesignated the Moose Range as the Kenai National
Wildlife Refuge, added nearly a quarter of a million acres of land, and
established the 1.32-million acre (534,349 hectare) Kenai Wilderness.
The Refuge is considered by many to be “Alaska in Miniature.” It
consists of the western slopes of the Kenai Mountains and forested
lowlands bordering Cook Inlet. Treeless alpine and subalpine habitats
are home to mountain goats, Dall sheep, caribou, wolverine, marmots,
and ptarmigan. Most of the lower elevations on the Refuge are covered
by boreal forests composed of spruce and birch forests intermingled
with hundreds of lakes. Boreal forests are home to moose, wolves, black
and brown bears, lynx, snowshoe hares, and numerous species of
neotropical birds such as olive-sided flycatchers, myrtle warblers, and
ruby-crowned kinglets. At sea level, the Refuge encompasses the
largest estuary on the Peninsula—the Chickaloon River Flats. The
Flats provide a major migratory staging area for thousands of
shorebirds and waterfowl and provide a haul-out area for harbor seals
and feeding areas for beluga whales.
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-9
Figure 1-3. Location of Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-11
1.4 Refuge Purposes, Vision, and Goals
1.4.1 Refuge Purposes
ANILCA sets out the purposes for each refuge in Alaska. The purposes
of Kenai Refuge are described in Section 303(4)(B) of the act. The
purposes identify the reasons why Congress established the Refuge
and sets the management priorities for it.
ANILCA purposes for Kenai Refuge are as follows (unless otherwise
noted):
(i) to conserve fish and wildlife populations and habitats in their
natural diversity, including but not limited to moose, bears,
mountain goats, Dall sheep, wolves and other furbearers,
salmonoids and other fish, waterfowl and other migratory and
nonmigratory birds;
(ii) to fulfill the international treaty obligations of the United States
with respect to fish and wildlife and their habitats;
(iii) to ensure, to the maximum extent practicable and in a manner
consistent with the purposes set forth in paragraph (i), water
quality and necessary water quantity within the Refuge;
(iv) to provide in a manner consistent with subparagraphs (i) and (ii),
opportunities for scientific research, interpretation, environmental
education, and land management training; and
(v) to provide, in a manner compatible with these purposes,
opportunities for fish and wildlife-oriented recreation.
The Wilderness Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88-577) provides the following
purposes for the Kenai Wilderness Area:
(i) to secure an enduring resource of wilderness;
(ii) to protect and preserve the wilderness character of areas within the
National Wilderness Preservation System; and
(iii) and to administer [the areas] for the use and enjoyment of the
American people in a way that will leave them unimpaired for
future use and enjoyment as wilderness.
1.4.2 Our Vision for Kenai National Wildlife Refuge
Kenai Refuge staff developed the following statement about what they
believe the Refuge will be in the future, considering the mission of the
Refuge System, the specific purposes of the Refuge and Wilderness
Act, and other relevant Service mandates:
The Kenai National Wildlife Refuge will serve as an anchor for
biodiversity on the Kenai Peninsula despite global climate change,
increasing development, and competing demands for Refuge resources.
Native wildlife and their habitats will find a secure place here, where
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1-12 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Refuge staff and partners work together using the best science and
technology available to ensure that biological health is maximized and
human impacts are minimized.
Visitors will feel welcomed and safe by means of a wide variety of
wildlife-dependent recreation opportunities, facilities, and interpretive
and educational programs that encourage informed and ethical use of
the Refuge’s natural resources. The Refuge will achieve excellence in
land, water, and Wilderness stewardship; and—with careful planning,
forethought, and human determination—an enduring legacy of
abundant plant, fish, and wildlife populations will be ensured for
people to enjoy today and into the future for this phenomenal land we
call “The Kenai.”
1.4.3 Refuge Goals
Goals are descriptive, open-ended, and often broad statements of
desired future conditions that convey a purpose but do not define
measurable units. Goals for Kenai Refuge will direct work at carrying
out the Refuge’s mandates and achieving the purposes defined in
ANILCA.
The following goals are derived from the vision statement and Refuge
purposes to reflect the Refuge’s contribution to the National Wildlife
Refuge System and other key management responsibilities that stem
from law and policy. The Revised Plan adopted as a result of this
planning effort must work toward meeting all these goals.
Goal 1: Research—Increase our knowledge of fish, wildlife, and
plant populations, ecosystems, and dynamic processes on
refuge lands and waters.
Goal 2: Conservation and Management—Ensure natural diversity
and viability of refuge species, habitats, and ecosystems.
Goal 3: Resource Assessment—Ensure that the integrity of
ecological systems is protected and unimpaired for future
generations.
Goal 4: International Treaties—Ensure that refuge management
practices affecting avian species contribute to the successful
implementation of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
Goal 5: Water Resources—Ensure natural function and condition of
water resources necessary to conserve fish and wildlife
populations and habitats in their natural diversity.
Goal 6: Environmental Education and Training—Natural
resource professionals, students, and the visiting public will
value opportunities to increase their knowledge of
ecosystems and refuge management practices.
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-13
Subgoal 6.1: Environmental Education and Interpretation—
Diverse audiences will have equal opportunity to
understand and appreciate all management programs
and will support the refuge’s efforts to maintain and
enhance wildlife populations and habitats.
Subgoal 6.2: Land Management Training—Land managers,
scientists, and other partners will learn practices and
techniques to study, manage, and monitor refuge
ecosystems.
Goal 7: Wildlife-Oriented Recreation—Visitors of all skills and
abilities will enjoy wildlife-oriented recreation opportunities
in safe and secure settings.
Goal 8: Facilities—Visitors and refuge personnel will value and
enjoy safe, well-maintained facilities and quality programs.
Goal 9: Wilderness Stewardship—Preserve, and where necessary,
restore the character and integrity of Wilderness for present
and future generations.
Objectives are more concise statements of what the Service wants to
achieve during this planning cycle, how much to achieve, when and where
to achieve it, and who is responsible for conducting the work. Objectives
derive from goals and provide the basis for determining strategies,
monitoring refuge accomplishments, and evaluating the success of
strategies. A complete list of objectives can be found in chapter 2.
1.5 Refuge Overview
1.5.1 Historical Perspective
The human history of Alaska’s Kenai Peninsula is believed to date back
to approximately 10,000 years ago, when glacial ice began to recede
from the area. Five distinct cultural traditions have been documented,
including both Eskimo and Indian occupations. Early inhabitants
hunted a variety of animals from Kenai forests and mountains and
caught salmon and other fish from the area’s many lakes and streams.
Today, the remains of barabaras (shelters dug into the ground) and
other cultural artifacts are common in many areas of the Refuge.
On July 24, 1741, Captain Vitus Bering, a Dane in Russian Service, first
sighted the Kenai Peninsula aboard the St. Peter. In May 1778, a
British sea explorer, Captain James Cook, landed at Point Possession
on the northern boundary of the Refuge and claimed the land for
England. Russian fur trappers arrived later and established
settlements on the Kenai Peninsula in 1786.
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1-14 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
By the mid-1800s, demands for furs from sea otters and other animals
had seriously depleted their populations. American fishermen and
canneries largely replaced the fur trapper, but Russian traditions and
culture remained evident in some place names and in the lives of some
local residents. Alaska was purchased by the United States from Russia
in 1867, and the salmon fishing industry grew rapidly. Gold mining also
brought many prospectors and speculators to the Kenai Peninsula in
the late 1800s and early 1900s. Small communities sprang up, and the
face of the Kenai was forever changed.
By the late 1890s, the Kenai became know as a destination for
sportsmen from all over the world, most seeking moose, Dall sheep, and
other game. Returning hunters noticed the decline in game populations
due to increased human use and commercial hunting of animals and
began lobbying the Federal government to establish the area as a
special area to conserve wildlife, specifically moose. On December 16,
1941, only six days after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President
Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8979 creating the
1,730,000-acre Kenai National Moose Range (Range).
Human use of the Kenai Peninsula continued to change after the
establishment of the Range with the discontinuance of homesteading,
construction of the Sterling Highway to the Kenai Peninsula in 1950,
discovery of oil in the Swanson River area of the Range in 1957, and the
nearly exponential growth in population during each new 10-year
census period. The area increasingly became used for recreation; and
trails, campgrounds, and canoe systems were established on the Range.
The Kenai Moose Range was subject to several executive orders and
land withdrawals after its initial establishment. A significant boundary
adjustment to the Range occurred on May 22, 1964. The purpose of the
adjustment was to realign the boundaries of the Range to facilitate
administration and as a basis for survey of adjoining selections by the
State of Alaska. The effect of the adjustment was to add 40,115 acres in
the Caribou Hills, important for moose feeding, from formerly
undesignated Federal lands. It removed from the Range a six-mile-wide
strip of land along the shores of Cook Inlet and an additional strip
of land from Bishop Creek to Point Possession. The remaining Moose
Range lands (1,730,000 acres) were subject to all laws and regulations
applicable to the original Kenai Moose Range and were withdrawn from
all forms of appropriation under the public land law (including mining),
except the mineral leasing laws.
In 1980, ANILCA changed the name of the Range to the Kenai
National Wildlife Refuge, increased the size of the Refuge to 1.92
million acres, designated approximately two-thirds of the Refuge as
Wilderness, and changed the purposes to include the conservation of all
fish and wildlife species. No longer was the Refuge to be managed just
for moose, but for all wildlife.
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-15
1.5.2 Refuge Environment
1.5.2.1 Physical Environment
The Refuge has a subarctic climate characterized by long, cool winters
and short growing seasons in the summer. Temperatures occasionally
exceed 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27 degrees Celsius) in summer, and
rarely drop below minus 30 degrees Fahrenheit (-34 degrees Celsius) in
winter.
The Kenai Mountains within the eastern third of the Refuge vary in
elevation from 3,000 to 6,600 feet (914–2,012 meters) and are heavily
glaciated in many of the higher elevation areas. The largest glaciated
area, the Harding Ice Field, covers more than 1,100 square miles (2,849
square kilometers) and lies within the boundaries of both the Refuge
and adjoining Kenai Fjords National Park. Located within the icefield,
and on the Refuge, is Truuli Peak, the highest peak on the Kenai
Peninsula at 6,600 feet (2,012 meters).
The Kenai Lowlands make up approximately two-thirds of the Refuge
and contain thousands of lakes and boreal forest covering low hills,
ridges, and muskeg. The largest two lakes on the Kenai Peninsula are
Tustumena (73,000 acres [29,542 hectares]) and Skilak (25,000 acres
[10,117 hectares]).
The Kenai River is the dominant river system on the Refuge and drains
about 2,148 square miles (5,563 square kilometers). Approximately 54
percent of the watershed is on the Refuge, with 37 percent on the
Chugach National Forest and the remainder on State of Alaska or
private land. The four major tributaries providing the most water
volume and fish habitat to the Kenai River system are the Funny,
Moose, Killey, and Russian rivers. The Chickaloon, Swanson, and
Kasilof rivers are three other significant systems contained wholly or
mostly within the Refuge.
1.5.2.2 Biological Environment
More than 175 species of mammals and birds occur on the Refuge
during at least part of the year. ANILCA mandated the conservation of
all fish and wildlife populations and habitats in their natural diversity
but made specific mention of moose, bear (brown, grizzly, and black
bear), mountain goats, Dall sheep, wolves, and other furbearers,
salmonids and other fish, and waterfowl and other migratory and
nonmigratory birds. Bald eagles, trumpeter swans, and common loons
are frequently observed bird species on lakes and rivers of the Refuge.
Slate-colored junco, myrtle warbler, orange-crowned warbler,
Swainson’s thrush, boreal chickadee, ruby-crowned kinglet, gray jay,
alder flycatcher, and American robin are common breeding landbirds in
Refuge forests. Twenty species of fish are documented on the Refuge
with salmon (Chinook, coho, sockeye, and pink) being most important
from ecological, recreation, and off-Refuge commercial viewpoints.
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1-16 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Anglers travel from all around the world to the Kenai area each year to
fish for salmon, trout, and Dolly Varden. No reptiles and only one
species of amphibian is found on the Kenai: the hardy wood frog, which
survives long winters by burrowing into mud that will ultimately freeze
for many months before spring thaw.
Vegetation on the Refuge is diverse and rich, with 484 vascular plants,
97 fungal, 35 lichen, and 90 moss species catalogued to date. Most of the
vegetation falls into a few land cover types, including alpine tundra,
estuarine or riparian areas, black spruce forest and peat bog, hardwood
and mixed spruce–hardwood forests, black spruce forest, and white
spruce forests. Wildfire is an important natural landscape process in
forests dominated by black spruce. Spruce bark beetle and, to a lesser
extent, wildfire, are important natural processes in forests dominated
by white spruce. Avalanches on steep slopes of the Kenai Mountains,
receding glaciers, and drying wetlands in the Kenai Lowlands also
continue to influence the Refuge’s natural landscape.
1.5.2.3 Human Uses
Approximately 1.2 million people travel through the Kenai National
Wildlife Refuge each year on the Sterling Highway, and an estimated
300,000 visitors spend extended periods of time on the Refuge enjoying
a variety of outdoor activities, including fishing, camping, hunting,
hiking, wildlife viewing and photography, and canoeing. There are now
also more than 50,000 year-round residents on the Kenai Peninsula.
As the seasons change, so do the dominant human uses of the Refuge.
Intense visitation from visitors enjoying fishing, hiking, sightseeing,
and camping is most obvious in spring, summer, and fall. Hunting
occurs throughout the year but is predominantly a fall activity. When
winter snows come, Refuge users turn to crosscountry skiing,
snowshoeing, trapping, ice fishing, and snowmachine travel once
portions of the Refuge have been opened to such use. Regulations allow
for more than half of the Refuge to be opened to snowmachine use from
December 1 through April 30 each winter, once the Refuge manager
has determined adequate snowfall exists to protect underlying
vegetation and soils.
Hundreds of individuals make a portion of their livelihood directly off
the Refuge, predominantly by being permitted guides or outfitters.
Thousands of other Alaskans benefit indirectly as they take advantage
of the economic input of the Refuge’s many visitors. Still others, such as
those in the commercial fishing industry, benefit from the Refuge
providing the majority of the critical salmon spawning and rearing
habitat for Upper Cook Inlet salmon. Finally, oil and gas development
within the Refuge has provided a significant number of jobs and
economic stability to the Region for nearly five decades.
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Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan 1-17
1.6 Special Values
Section 304(g) of ANILCA states that before developing or revising a
comprehensive conservation plan, “the special values of the Refuge, as
well as any other archaeological, cultural, ecological, geological,
historical, paleontological, scenic, or wilderness values of the Refuge”
should be identified. The following discussion describes the special
values that have been identified for Kenai Refuge (Figure 1-4).
1.6.1 Refuge Characteristics Valued by the Public
Public comments received during scoping (Table 1-7) indicated that
people value the Refuge’s wilderness character, its accessibility, and
the role it plays in conserving fish, wildlife, and their habitats.
Some people also mentioned specific places on the Refuge that they
valued. Some of these places have also been documented by Refuge
staff and other knowledgeable people. Special ecosystems and places
identified as having special values are listed in the following subsection.
1.6.2 Valued Ecosystems and Places
1.6.2.1 Chickaloon Watershed and Estuary
The Chickaloon watershed and associated estuary, located on the
Turnagain Arm of upper Cook Inlet, is the major waterfowl and
shorebird migratory staging area on the Kenai Peninsula and the only
estuary on the Refuge. Protection of the Chickaloon Flats was the
major reason the Refuge’s northeastern boundary was extended to
include most of the Chickaloon and Indian Creek watersheds.
1.6.2.2 Harding Icefield
The Harding Icefield is one of four major ice fields in the United States.
Its glaciers continue to carve valleys through the Kenai Mountains and
feed rivers throughout the Peninsula; as a result of global climate
change; however, the icefield is receding.
1.6.2.3 Kenai River and its Tributaries
The Kenai River, together with its tributaries—the Moose, Funny,
Killey, and Russian rivers—is the largest drainage system on the Kenai
Peninsula. The Kenai River is important to the entire Refuge
ecosystem, including the Cook Inlet salmon fishery. The Kenai River
provides priceless spawning and rearing habitat for millions of salmon.
1.6.2.4 Lowland Lakes System
The numerous lakes located throughout the northern lowlands are a
unique geologic feature that provides a variety of aquatic habitats for
Refuge wildlife. The Swanson River and Swan Lake canoe routes are
the only nationally designated trails in the Alaska refuge system and
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1-18 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Final Revised Comprehensive Conservation Plan
annually provide thousands of refuge visitors the opportunity to enjoy
this mix of f