Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan

              Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan
FONSI-i
FINDING OF NO SIGNIFICANT IMPACT
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge
Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Unincorporated U.S. Territory, Central Pacific Ocean
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) has completed the Comprehensive Conservation
Plan (CCP) and Environmental Assessment (EA) for Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge
(Refuge). The CCP will guide management of the Refuge for the next 15 years. The CCP and
EA describe the Service’s preferred alternative for managing the Refuge and its effects on the
human environment.
Decision
Following comprehensive review and analysis, the Service selected Alternative B in the draft EA
for implementation because it is the alternative that best meets the following criteria:
􀂄􈑁 Achieves the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System.
􀂄􈑁 Achieves the purposes of the Refuge.
􀂄􈑗 Will be able to achieve the vision and goals for the Refuge.
􀂄􈑍 Maintains and restores the ecological integrity of the habitats and plant and animal populations
at the Refuge.
􀂄􈑁 Addresses the important issues identified during the scoping process.
􀂄􈑁 Addresses the legal mandates of the Service and the Refuge.
􀂄􈑉 Is consistent with the scientific principles of sound wildlife management.
􀂄􈑃 Can be implemented within the projected fiscal and logistical management constraints
associated with the Refuge’s remote location.
As described in detail in the CCP and EA, implementing the selected alternative will have no
significant impacts on any of the natural or cultural resources identified in the CCP and EA.
Public Review
The planning process incorporated a variety of public involvement techniques in developing and
reviewing the CCP. This included three planning updates, meetings with partners, and public
review and comment on the planning documents. The details of the Service’s public
involvement program are described in the CCP.
Conclusions
Based on review and evaluation of the information contained in the supporting references, I have
determined that implementing Alternative B as the CCP for management of Jarvis Island
National Wildlife Refuge is not a major Federal action that would significantly affect the quality
of the human environment within the meaning of section 102(2) (C) of the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969. Accordingly, the Service is not required to prepare an
environmental impact statement.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1-1
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ............................................................................................. 1-1
National Wildlife Refuge System ................................................................................................ 1-1
National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific ..................................................................................... 1-4
Refuge Establishment, Purpose and Boundary............................................................................ 1-6
Regional and Ecosystem Conservation Plans ..............................................................................1-9
Refuge Vision Statement ........................................................................................................... 1-10
Refuge Goals............................................................................................................................. 1-11
CHAPTER 2: PLANNING, PURPOSE, NEED, AND ISSUES
Planning Process ......................................................................................................................... 2-1
Purpose and Need ....................................................................................................................... 2-1
Planning Issues and Opportunities .............................................................................................. 2-2
CHAPTER 3: MANAGEMENT DIRECTION
Overview .................................................................................................................................... 3-1
Goals, Objectives, Strategies, and Rationale ............................................................................... 3-4
CHAPTER 4: REFUGE AND RESOURCE DESCRIPTION
Geographic/Ecosystem Setting .................................................................................................... 4-1
Climate........................................................................................................................................ 4-1
Global Climate Change................................................................................................................ 4-3
Geology and Soils........................................................................................................................ 4-7
Hydrology ................................................................................................................................... 4-9
Air and Water Quality.................................................................................................................. 4-9
Environmental Contaminants....................................................................................................... 4-9
Terrestrial Vegetation and Habitats ...........................................................................................4-10
Terrestrial Wildlife..................................................................................................................... 4-10
Marine Habitats, Fish and Wildlife............................................................................................ 4-12
Threatened and Endangered Species ......................................................................................... 4-18
Invasive Species ........................................................................................................................ 4-18
Wilderness Resources ................................................................................................................ 4-18
Archaeology and Paleontology.................................................................................................. 4-18
Recent Cultural History ............................................................................................................. 4-19
Socio-economics ........................................................................................................................ 4-21
APPENDICES
Appendix A. Glossary of Terms and Acronyms
Appendix B. Species Lists
Appendix C. References
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Appendix D. Planning Team Members
Appendix E. Quarantine Protocol
Appendix F. Wilderness Review
Appendix G. Statement of Compliance
Appendix H. Plan Implementation and Costs
Appendix I. Consultation and Coordination
Appendix J. Responses to Comments
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific………………………………………...1-5
Figure 1.2 Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge: Geographic Location and Boundary…..1-8
Figure 4.1 Percentages of coral genera reported during March 2006 surveys,
Jarvis Island NWR ………………………………………………………………4-14
Figure 4.2 Size class distributions of corals at 9 REA sites, Jarvis Island NWR…………...4-15
Figure 4.3 Changes in the number of corals per age class between 2000 and 2006
at site 4P, Jarvis Island NWR …………………………………………………...4-15
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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Introduction
This document is a Comprehensive Conservation Plan for Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge
(Jarvis). The CCP guides management of refuge operations, site visitation, and habitat
restoration for the 15-year life of the plan. Guidance within the CCP is in the form of goals,
objectives, strategies (Chapter 3), and wilderness study findings (Appendix F). The CCP was
revised as appropriate based upon public comments. The refuge manager of the Pacific Remote
Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex (Remotes Complex) in Honolulu, Hawaii, is
responsible for implementing the CCP.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Jarvis is managed by the Service, within the U.S. Department of the Interior. The Service is the
primary Federal entity responsible for conserving and enhancing the Nation’s fish and wildlife
populations and their habitats. Although the Service shares this responsibility with other
Federal, State, tribal, local, and private entities, the Service has specific trust resource
responsibilities for migratory birds, threatened and endangered species, certain anadromous fish,
certain marine mammals, coral reef ecosystems, wetlands, and other special aquatic habitats.
The Service also has similar trust responsibilities for the lands and waters it administers to
support the conservation and enhancement of all fish and wildlife and their associated habitats.
National Wildlife Refuge System
President Theodore Roosevelt established Pelican Island, Florida as the first national wildlife
refuge in 1903. Since that time, the number of refuges has expanded to include 548, totaling
approximately100 million acres. These refuges, found in every state and several U.S. Territories,
are administered collectively as a national system of lands with the specific mandate of
managing for “wildlife first.” This System is the largest collection of lands specifically managed
for fish and wildlife conservation in the Nation and perhaps the world. The “wildlife first”
mandate of the System means the needs of wildlife and their habitats take priority on refuges, in
contrast to other public lands that are managed for multiple uses. The following is a description
of some of the most relevant acts and policies that guide the management of the System.
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended
The NWRS Administration Act defines a unifying mission for all refuges, including a process
for determining compatible uses on refuges, and requiring that each refuge be managed
according to a CCP. The NWRS Administration Act expressly states that wildlife conservation
is the priority of System lands and that the Secretary shall ensure that the biological integrity,
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diversity, and environmental health of refuge lands are maintained. Each refuge must be
managed to fulfill the specific purposes for which the refuge was established and the System
mission. The first priority of each refuge is to conserve, manage, and if needed, restore fish and
wildlife populations and habitats according to its purpose. The Service has statutory authority
under the NWRS Administration Act to regulate activities that occur on water bodies “within” a
refuge. The NWRS Administration Act requires a CCP be completed for each refuge and that
the public has an opportunity for active involvement in plan development and revision. It is
Service policy that each CCP is developed in an open public process.
National Wildlife Refuge System Mission and Goals and Purposes (601 FW1)
In July 2006, the Service issued a policy (601 FW 1) which included the NWRS mission
statement and NWRS goals, and described how refuge purposes are determined.
The NWRS Administration Act established the following statutory mission for the System:
“The mission of the System is to administer a national network of lands and waters for
the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife,
and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of present
and future generations of Americans.”
The administration, management, and growth of the System are guided by the following goals
(601 FW 1, July 2006)…
• Conserve a diversity of fish, wildlife, and plants and their habitats, including species that
are endangered or threatened with becoming endangered.
• Develop and maintain a network of habitats for migratory birds, anadromous and
interjurisdictional fish, and marine mammal populations that are strategically distributed
and carefully managed to meet important life history needs of these species across their
ranges.
• Conserve those ecosystems, plant communities, wetlands of national or international
significance, and landscapes and seascapes that are unique, rare, declining, or
underrepresented in existing protection efforts.
• Provide and enhance opportunities to participate in compatible wildlife-dependent
recreation (hunting, fishing, wildlife observation and photography, and environmental
education and interpretation).
• Foster understanding and instill appreciation of the diversity and interconnectedness of
fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats.
Lastly, the NWRS Administration Act describes refuge purposes, and how these guiding
principals for the refuge are located and documented.
Appropriate Refuge Uses (603 FW1)
This policy (603 FW 1), published in July 2006, provides a national framework for determining
appropriate refuge uses. Serving as a “prescreening” for proposed uses of a national wildlife
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refuge prior to a compatibility determination (see below); this policy requires—for most uses—a
written finding of appropriateness by the refuge manager based on 11 criteria. Findings of
appropriateness require concurrence by the State for refuges located within state boundaries.
These criteria include:
• Promotes safety of participants, other visitors, and facilities.
• Promotes compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and responsible behavior.
• Minimizes or eliminates conflicts with fish and wildlife populations or habitat goals or
objectives in a plan approved after 1997.
• Minimizes or eliminates conflicts with other compatible wildlife-dependent recreation.
• Minimizes conflicts with neighboring landowners.
• Promotes accessibility and availability to a broad spectrum of the American people.
• Promotes resource stewardship and conservation.
• Promotes public understanding and increases public appreciation of America’s natural
resources and our role in managing and protecting these resources.
• Provides reliable/reasonable opportunities to experience wildlife.
• Uses facilities that are accessible and blend into the natural setting.
• Uses visitor satisfaction to help define and evaluate programs.
Compatibility (603 FW2)
Lands within the System are different from other, multiple-use public lands in that, with few
exceptions, they are closed to all public access and use unless specifically and legally opened
(603 FW 2). No refuge use may be allowed unless it is determined to be compatible. A
compatible use is one that, in the sound professional judgment of the refuge manager, would not
materially interfere with or detract from the fulfillment of the mission of the Service or the
purpose of the refuge. The NWRS Administration Act identifies six wildlife-dependent
recreational uses: hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, environmental education,
and interpretation. When compatible, these six uses become priority uses of the System. As
priority public uses, they receive special consideration over other general public uses in refuge
planning and management.
Biological Integrity, Diversity, and Environmental Health (601 FW3)
The NWRS Administration Act directs the Service to “ensure that the biological integrity,
diversity, and environmental health of the System are maintained for the benefit of present and
future generations of Americans…” This policy (601 FW 3) is an additional directive for refuge
managers to follow while achieving refuge purpose(s) and System mission. It provides for the
consideration and protection of the broad spectrum of fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitat
resources found on refuges and associated ecosystems. When evaluating the appropriate
management direction for refuges, refuge managers would use sound professional judgment to
determine their refuges’ contribution to maintenance and, where possible, restoration of
biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health (BIDEH) at multiple landscape scales.
Sound professional judgment incorporates field experience, knowledge of refuge resources,
refuge functions within an ecosystem, applicable laws, and best available science, including
consultation with others both inside and outside the Service.
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Wilderness (602 FW 3)
Service planning policy (602 FW 3) requires the conduct of a wilderness review in association
with the development of a refuge CCP. The wilderness review process has three phases:
inventory, study, and recommendation. After first identifying lands and waters that meet the
minimum criteria for wilderness during the inventory phase, the resulting wilderness study areas
are further evaluated to determine if they merit recommendation from the Service to the
Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation
System. A more complete discussion of wilderness inventory, study, and recommendation is
included in Appendix F.
General Guidelines for Wildlife-Dependent Recreation (605 FW1)
This set of policies (605 FW 1-7), published in July 2006, defines the System’s wildlife-dependent
recreation policy, provides guidelines used to manage wildlife-dependent recreation
on refuge lands and identifies visitor service standards.
National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific
Nineteen individual NWRs are scattered across the central and western Pacific Ocean, with
several refuges located on the main Hawaiian Islands and others found from Guam to American
Samoa (Figure 1.1). The Hawaiian and Pacific Islands NWR Complex, which provides
administrative guidance and oversight for these 19 refuges, is located in Honolulu, Hawaii. This
Complex also co-manages the newly established Papahānaumokuākea Marine National
Monument, along with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the State of
Hawaii.
Within this administrative structure is a subset of seven refuges known as the Remotes Complex.
The Remotes Complex straddles the Equator near the center of the Pacific Ocean. They are
farther from human population centers than any other U.S. area and represent one of the last
frontiers and havens for fish and wildlife in the World. These remote refuges are the most
widespread collection of coral reef and seabird/shorebird protected areas on the planet under a
single country’s jurisdiction. Only one of these seven refuges, Palmyra Atoll NWR, has on-island
dedicated staff members. Remotes Complex staff, located within the complex office in
Honolulu, manage all the remaining refuges, including Jarvis. Staff, funding, and logistical
support are often shared among these remote refuges to help defray operational costs.
The Jarvis CCP identifies several management strategies that are dependent upon activities and
staff support from the Remotes Complex office, ship transportation support from other Federal
agencies, or the establishment of partnerships with other organizations. Because of the great
distances involved in traveling to these remote refuges, most management activities, including
the simple act of visiting a refuge, are sometimes planned to occur concurrently during the same
voyage. For this reason, cost estimates for management activities at Jarvis are pro-rated amongst
the seven Remotes Complex refuges.
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Figure 1.1 Map of National Wildlife Refuges in the Pacific.
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Refuge Establishment, Purpose, and Boundary
Refuge Establishment
Jarvis Island is an unincorporated territory under the sovereignty of the United States. The
Secretary of the Interior has broad authority over the territories of the United States by virtue of
the Act of March 1, 1873, (43 U.S.C. 1458) which transferred general authority “…to perform all
duties in relation to the Territories of the United States…” from the Secretary of State to the
Secretary of the Interior. In addition, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order
7368 on May 13, 1936, also placing control and jurisdiction of Howland Island with the
Secretary of the Interior. Further, pursuant to the provisions of the Reorganization Act of 1949,
the Secretary of the Interior is authorized under Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1950 to re-delegate
to any officer or agency within the Department of the Interior any of the functions legally under
his jurisdiction.
Under the authority of Reorganization Plan No. 3, the Secretary of the Interior, on June 27, 1974,
designated Jarvis Island and its territorial sea extending to the 3 nautical mile (nmi) limit as a
unit of the National Wildlife Refuge System to be “administered under the general regulations
for the National Wildlife Refuge System published in Title 50, Code of Federal Regulations” (39
FR 27930). Section 25.21 of these regulations state that “…all areas included in the National
Wildlife Refuge System are closed to public access until and unless we open the area for a use or
uses in accordance with the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16
U.S.C. 668dd-668ee), the Refuge Recreation Act of 1962 (16 U.S.C. 460k-460k-4) and this
subchapter C.” Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge remains closed to public access.
Refuge Purpose
Refuge purposes are oftentimes are based upon land acquisition documents and authorities.
These statements give indications for the biological reason or justification for the acquisition or
land transfer. Purposes listed in acquisition authorities, or legislative acts, are often general in
scope. For Jarvis, this general purpose is:
“...for the development, advancement, management, conservation, and protection of fish and
wildlife resources...” (16 U.S.C. 742f (a) (4)), and “...for the benefit of the United States Fish
and Wildlife Service, in performing its activities and services. Such acceptance may be
subject to the terms of any restrictive or affirmative covenant, or condition of servitude...”
(16 U.S.C. 742f (b)(1)) (Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956).
Acquisition documents often contain more specific purpose statements. The specific purpose
statement for establishment of Jarvis identified in the biological ascertainment report at the time
of transfer to the Service is (USFWS 1973):
“…the preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial as well as marine. Special
emphasis to be given to the large seabird nesting colonies.”
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Refuge Boundary
Jarvis is located in the central equatorial Pacific Ocean (Figure 1.2). The boundary for Jarvis
includes:
“all of said island…together with its territorial sea extending outward to the three-mile limit.”
(39 Federal Register 27930).
The emergent land area for Jarvis encompasses 1,273 acres and submerged lands and waters
within the 3-mile limit encompass 36,214 acres for a total of 37,487 acres.
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Figure 1.2 Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge: Geographic Location and Boundary.
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Regional and Ecosystem Conservation Plans
Regional and ecosystem conservation plans and initiatives are also important to evaluate and
incorporate into developing each CCP. These plans typically address issues or concerns that are
site specific or of regional concern, and address needs more current than when the refuge was
established.
Remote Islands Ecosystem Plan: Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island National
Wildlife Refuge
The ecosystem plan for Howland, Baker, and Jarvis identifies Jarvis as “…an important site for
the study of long term global climate change and periodic phenomena such as El Niño Southern
Oscillation” (USFWS 1998b). The plan further describes the fringing reef as a healthy coral
community resulting from its remoteness and lack of anthropogenic effects, and having 14
species of breeding seabirds and the only fully protected seabird island in the Line Islands.
Coral Reef Initiative in the Pacific: Howland Island, Baker Island, and Jarvis Island
National Wildlife Refuges
The Coral Reef Initiative for Howland, Baker, and Jarvis restates the wildlife and ecological
values identified in the ecosystem plan (USFWS 1998a). This document identifies three
important components of the three ecosystems: “They provide a breeding platform for pelagic
birds using large areas of ocean surface, offer a migratory stopover for long distance migrating
shorebirds, and furnish reef habitat for shallow water organisms.”
Recovery Plan for U.S. Pacific Populations of the Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricate)
Although theoretically within the range for hawksbill turtle, little is known about their biology,
foraging and nesting behavior, threats, and distribution surrounding Jarvis Island. Both the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Marine Fishery Service (NMFS)
and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service share responsibility at the Federal level for the research,
management, and recovery of Pacific marine turtle populations under U.S. jurisdiction (NMFS
and USFWS 1998).
Recovery Plan for U.S. Pacific Populations of the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas)
Few green turtles are known to forage in the waters surrounding Jarvis Island and nesting was
recorded in low densities along the west coast of Jarvis in the 1930’s. However, data from the
area is limited and use of Jarvis may be greater than currently documented. Both the NMFS and
the Service share responsibility at the Federal level for the research, management, and recovery
of Pacific marine turtle populations under U.S. jurisdiction (NMFS and USFWS 1998).
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U.S. Pacific Island Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan
This regional shorebird plan identifies Jarvis as being within the Central Pacific Islands
Subregion. No natural wetlands are known from this subregion; however, beaches on
uninhabited islands are important for shorebirds. Population and habitat goals for this subregion
state that determining population size and trends for bristle-thighed curlews and other shorebirds,
and their habitats is a management priority (Engilis and Naughton 2004).
United States Shorebird Conservation Plan
This nationwide shorebird plan identifies the U.S. Pacific Islands being of “critical importance
for two species of Holarctic breeders, bristle-thighed curlew and Pacific golden-plover.”
Further, this plan notes that these islands provide wintering habitat essential to the maintenance
of these species as well as several other migratory shorebird species (Brown et al. 2000).
Seabird Conservation Plan, Pacific Region
This plan provides an overarching review, discussion, and identification of conservation
priorities for seabirds in the U.S Pacific Islands; ranks seabirds for conservation priority; and
includes specific species accounts including their conservation needs (USFWS 2005).
Central Pacific World Heritage Project
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) organized and
convened meetings in Honolulu in June 2003, and Kiritimati Atoll in October 2004, to seek input
for a proposed multi-national World Heritage project now referred to as the Central Pacific
World Heritage Project (CPWHP) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2003; 2004). Additional
meetings and evaluations in the U.S. and Republic of Kiribati resulted in a total of 29 atolls,
islands, and reefs belonging to four nations (United States, Cook Islands, Republic of Kiribati,
and French Polynesia) being proposed for the multi-site, multi-jurisdictional CPWHP. To date,
the Service has not acted on this proposal, but intends to do so in the future. However, the
Republic of Kiribati is planning to nominate all eight of its Phoenix Islands for World Heritage
in 2009, and that would constitute the first major action among the four involved nations to
implement the CPWHP.
Refuge Vision Statement
The refuge vision statement is a broad general statement that describes what the refuge staff
perceives as Jarvis’s fundamental attributes and contributions to a healthy world environment.
This statement will guide management activities for the lifespan of this plan, as well into the near
future. The draft vision statement for Jarvis is as follows.
Jarvis is one of the last places in the world where the terrestrial and marine tropical
island ecosystems are still intact and relatively free of human impact, offering the
opportunity to serve as a living laboratory for measuring current and future human
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impacts to island, coral reef, and deep marine habitats. Natural, physical and ecological
processes unfold with limited human interference and support a diverse community of
native marine organisms including seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, fish, plants,
corals, and other invertebrates. Nesting and foraging seabirds dominate the landscape
and seascape while sheer isolation and solitude help us see our place in the natural
world.
Refuge Goals
Goal statements are succinct statements of a desired future condition of refuge resources. Goals
comprise the whole of a refuge’s effort in pursuit of its vision and lay the foundation from which
all refuge activities arise. The goals for Jarvis are as follows, and will again be presented along
with objectives and strategies in Chapter 3.
1. Conserve, manage, and protect native terrestrial habitats that are representative of remote
tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of seabirds.
2. Conserve, manage, and protect native marine communities that are representative of
remote tropical Pacific Islands.
3. Contribute to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all native species with
special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds, federally listed threatened and
endangered species, and species of management concern.
4. Protect, maintain, enhance, and preserve the wilderness character of Jarvis’s terrestrial
and marine communities.
5. Jarvis’s biological, cultural and historic resources are preserved.
6. An informed, interested, and educated public appreciates remote Pacific Island NWRs
wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, and their ecosystems, with special
emphasis on seabirds.
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Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues 2-1
Chapter 2: PLANNING, PURPOSE, NEED, AND ISSUES
Planning Process
The CCP development process follows applicable policies contained within the Service’s Fish
and Wildlife Manual (Part 602 FW2.1, November 1996; Part 601 FW1, Part 603 FW1, and Part
605 FW1, June 2006), and the Wilderness Act of 1964 with respect to wilderness study and
review. This CCP was completed in association with an EA and is intended to meet the dual
requirements of compliance with the NWRS Administration Act and the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA). Both the NWRS Administration Act and NEPA require the Service to
actively seek public involvement in the preparation and adoption of environmental and
conservation documents and policies. Furthermore, NEPA also requires the Service to consider a
reasonable range of alternatives including its Preferred Alternative and the “No Action”
alternative; the latter defined as continuation of current management practices.
Purpose and Need
Overall, all refuges must comply with the System mission, goals, and policies, as described in or
promulgated by the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (NWRS
Administration Act), as amended (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee). The National Wildlife Refuge
System Improvement Act of 1997 amended the NWRS Administration Act. According to the
NWRS Administration Act, a CCP is required to identify and describe refuge purpose(s),
habitats and wildlife, archaeological and cultural values, administrative and visitor facilities,
management challenges and their solutions, and opportunities for compatible wildlife-dependent
recreation. The recreational activities referenced in the NWRS Administration Act as receiving
special consideration during planning efforts include hunting, recreational fishing, wildlife
observation, interpretation, environmental education, and photography.
The purpose of this CCP is to develop a vision, goals, and objectives for Jarvis, which in turn
provide guidance to identify and implement management activities, or strategies, during the next
15 years. Specifically, the CCP:
• sets a long term vision;
• establishes wildlife and habitat management goals and objectives;
• establishes goals and objectives for compatible wildlife-dependent recreational and
educational uses;
• identifies strategies for habitat enhancement and restoration projects;
• describes the highest monitoring and research priorities; and
• describes and evaluates wilderness values.
Jarvis and its management and administrative activities are managed as part of the NWRS or
System within a framework provided by legal and policy guidelines. The refuge is guided by the
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mission and goals of the NWRS, the purpose of the refuge as described in its acquisition
authority, Service policy, Federal laws and executive orders, and international treaties.
Supplemental guidance documents (e.g., resource plans) are also included in making
management decisions but cannot replace or be in conflict with the purposes for which the refuge
was established or the mission of the System
Planning Issues and Opportunities
Issues, concerns, and opportunities were identified through discussions with key contacts,
workshop participants, core team members, other refuge staff, and through the public scoping
process. The following section summarizes issues, concerns, and opportunities from all public
input received throughout the planning efforts. Six issues were identified and are described
below.
Issue 1: Operational Limitations
Jarvis is located approximately 1,263 nmi from the management staff located in Honolulu,
Hawaii. On average, it takes 6-7 days to reach Jarvis by ship, the only method of visiting the
island. The key issues and concerns affecting planning and management implementation are:
• distance from refuge headquarters;
• lack of affordable and reliable transportation;
• lack of infrastructure to support field operations;
• extreme environmental conditions; and
• safety concerns and logistical capacity to land people and equipment on-island from
small boats during limited time windows associated with low surf conditions.
Issue 2: Biological and Ecological Resources
Biological and ecological information sufficient for management or conservation purposes is
lacking. Due to the infrequency and limited staff time spent on Jarvis, biological and ecological
information is not of sufficient frequency to allow for a detailed assessment of resources. The
collection of baseline and long-term monitoring information should be a primary concern and the
focus of management objectives.
Issue 3: External Forces
The threat of the introduction of invasive species from unauthorized visits, marine debris
washing ashore and onto coral reefs, and vessel groundings are beyond current management
control. Distance, lack of funds and staff, and the inability to have a more consistent presence on
this island opens the opportunity for invasive species introductions, limits the ability to remove
marine debris, and delays in the response to vessel groundings.
Global climate change (see Chapter 4) may also affect refuge resources, but is beyond control of
refuge management staff. It is anticipated that changes in the chemical composition of the
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Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues 2-3
atmosphere and oceans; surface temperatures of air, land, and sea; intensity and frequency of
rainfall and storm waves; and changes in sea level would have impacts on refuge resources.
However, the extent and nature of these impacts, if any, is unclear and the subject of
considerable academic debate. Continued upwelling of ocean waters caused by the Equatorial
Undercurrent impinging upon the western flanks of Jarvis Island will generate cooler surface
waters that may mollify some of the adverse effects of climate change that include sea surface
temperature rise and coral bleaching.
Issue 4: Public Use Resources
The key issues related to public use are:
• adverse ecological impacts (invasive species introductions, sewage pollution, fuel spills,
trash disposal, harassment of wildlife, damage to sensitive habitats such as coral reefs);
• whether any on-site public use should be allowed;
• to what extent the use should occur; and
• how the use should be managed.
Jarvis Island Refuge has never been formally opened to public access and use. In the past,
several recreational user groups such as amateur radio operators, bird watchers, history
enthusiasts, destination tourists, and commercial cruise vessels have expressed interest in visiting
various remote Pacific island refuges. Public access to Jarvis Island would be managed through
use of refuge-issued Special Use Permits (SUP). However, before a SUP could be issued, a
request for public access would need to be evaluated for appropriateness and compatibility.
Issue 5: Education and Outreach
In general, Pacific Island refuges are poorly recognized by the public and our partner agencies.
There are few entrance signs, no boundary signs, and little published information in popular
literature. Refuge boundaries are rarely portrayed on nautical charts and other maps.
The remote location and isolation of Jarvis and other Pacific island refuges make it difficult to
conduct on-site visits for educational or interpretative purposes. Thus, most educational and
interpretative opportunities are necessarily delivered remotely through various media.
In addition, general interest by the public and requests to visit remote Pacific Island refuges by a
growing recreational yachting community has increased recently. This interest requires the
public to be better informed regarding sensitive refuge habitats, species, and regulations.
Issue 6: Communication and Cooperation
Jarvis’s remoteness compels a growing list of partners and cooperators to be kept informed of
and included in planning and management activities at Jarvis. Activities that staff and partner
agencies/organizations share include:
• expedition planning;
• collaborative research projects; and
• jurisdictions of trust resources.
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2-4 Chapter 2 – Planning, Purpose and Need, and Issues
Most access for refuge staff to Jarvis has only been possible through the cooperation and
participation with partner agencies such as NOAA and the U.S. Coast Guard. Many research
interests are shared between Service and NOAA scientists, and collaborative research projects
have been conducted in the past. Additionally, NOAA and the Service share trust resource
responsibilities for marine turtles.
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Chapter 3: MANAGEMENT DIRECTION
Overview
The Service reviewed and considered a variety of resource, logistic, social, and economic aspects
important for managing the refuge when developing this long-term management plan. As is
appropriate for a National Wildlife Refuge, resource conditions were fundamental in designing
the CCP. Marine and terrestrial resources are equally important to the management of Jarvis,
and are described more fully in Chapter 4. However, the logistics of reaching the island and
associated coral reefs is the primary constraint on increasing or modifying the level of
management and monitoring activity that has or currently occurs. To more fully understand this
constraint, a description of the logistical requirements and refuge management activities follows.
Marine vessels capable of traveling the open ocean for extended periods are the only opportunity
for transportation to Jarvis. In the recent years, NOAA, the U.S. Coast Guard, and private
charter vessels have all provided transportation. A typical voyage originating from Honolulu,
Hawaii will take approximately 6 to 7 days to arrive at Jarvis with intermediate stops at Palmyra
Atoll or Johnston Atoll NWRs. Once on-site, if wind and wave conditions warrant the launch of
a landing vessel (typically a small outboard type inflatable boat), the marine vessel will anchor or
remain stationary during the deployment of the field camp, only venturing away from the island
to complete marine surveys. The field camp itself generally consists of two individuals, typically
biologists to carry out biological surveys and other duties, and camping gear consisting of tents,
sleeping equipment, food, water, and needed survey equipment. Cooking gear is rarely deployed
since staff is only on-island for 1 to 2 days with most of that time being engaged in work
activities.
While on-island, the biologists document all bird species present, count individuals, determine if
any and the extent of nesting, casually observe vegetation and record species presence or
absence, or the presence of any invasive species. Observations regarding the condition of
cultural sites are also made. The only active management that occurs during these site visits is
the collection and on-island stockpile of marine debris that washes ashore and poses a threat to
seabirds and other wildlife that utilize Jarvis. Any evidence of illegal activity such as
unauthorized access is documented. Photographs record general habitat conditions; however,
further habitat assessment does not occur. Although no specific activities occur with respect to
wilderness values, the simple fact that a 1 to 2 day field camp consisting of temporary lodging
arrangements and minimal activity is consistent with maintaining the wilderness values of the
area.
During the period that the biologists are on Jarvis, marine scientists from NOAA, the Service,
and other partner organizations such as the University of Hawaii conduct surveys and monitoring
activities of the marine environment. Some monitoring activities occur on-board the vessel,
while others require the use of SCUBA equipment. All of the marine scientists, however, are
based on the vessel awaiting the conclusion of terrestrial surveys and thus do not come ashore.
Marine scientists typically collect information on currents, weather, temperature, chemical
composition of the water, and the abundance and distribution of coral and fish species. Specific
marine-based surveys known as Rapid Ecological Assessments (REA) are conducted and collect
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ecological data such as fish species, abundance, and predator prey relationships. Data are also
collected from permanently marked coral and macro-invertebrate transects which document coral
species richness, size/age classes, density, mean size, and percent coral cover. These data are
collected over a 2-day period (six 1-hour dives). Following the voyage, data from marine
scientists is provided to the Service and includes a full range of oceanographic, bathymetric, and
marine biological data.
Specific details of the management program are categorized below:
• Baseline Monitoring of Wildlife Populations and Habitats. Staff visits to Jarvis provide
baseline monitoring efforts, documenting species presence or absence, abundance, habitat
condition, presence of invasive species and various other physical variables such as
temperature, precipitation, wind, etc.
• Voyage Preparation. The logistics of providing adequate field camp supplies such as
water, food, first aid, and communications occurs for each voyage.
• Use of extraneous unnatural lighting. Limiting and shading the lighting on vessels,
camp, and nighttime operations minimizes the threat of collision and disorientation of
wildlife that can be caused by light hazards.
• Quarantine protocols and use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Visitors to Jarvis
are required to wear new and frozen clothing and other quarantine precautions as outlined
in quarantine protocols (Appendix E). The hand pulling of weeds occurs as time
becomes available. Selective hand spray application of herbicides or pesticides, where
appropriate, may occur.
• Scientific Information Exchange. Refuge staff currently attends various professional
meetings and conferences related to Pacific island and marine resources. Additionally, a
minimal amount of staff time is devoted to the development of peer reviewed journal
articles and contributing to NOAA and Service-sponsored Web sites and periodic state of
the reefs reports.
• Preservation of Wilderness Values. Since its establishment, Jarvis has been managed to
preserve its wilderness values and characteristics even though it has never been proposed
for wilderness designation. These values are intrinsic at this remote, uninhabited island
and coral reef ecosystem. Management activities do not impinge on these values.
• Public Access. Since establishment, Jarvis has never been formally opened to public
access and use. Access and public use remains closed. All individual opportunities for
compatible use such as specific research projects are administered using individual SUPs.
• Interpretation, Education, and Outreach. Current opportunities for off-site education
exist at the Maritime Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. A hands-on exhibit representing a
Pacific island refuge is maintained to educate school-aged students about seabirds,
invasive species, marine debris, and the National Wildlife Refuge System (System).
Interpretative displays are also used periodically at conventions and professional
meetings.
• Protection and Preservation of Cultural Resources. Cultural resources remain intact and
in situ. Field camps are situated to avoid impacts to cultural resource sites.
Archaeological reconnaissance to avoid impacts to cultural resources is required prior to
management activity that would potentially disturb surface or subsurface resources.
• Waste Disposal at Sea. Disposal of waste in refuge waters is prohibited.
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Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-3
• Waste Disposal on Island. All waste from food products, equipment, and containers that
is brought onto the island is removed during demobilization. Depending upon the
duration of the site visit, human excrement will be either bagged, stored in a chemical
toilet, or decomposed using portable biodegradable toilets, all of which are subsequently
removed during field camp demobilization.
• Refuge Boundary. There are no changes to the refuge boundary.
• Cultural Resources Inventory. Presence and condition of cultural resources on Jarvis is
re-evaluated.
• Wilderness Study Area. A recommendation for Wilderness Study Area (WSA)
designation is postponed until a Legislative Environmental Impact Statement (LEIS) and
wilderness proposal are developed for all other remote Pacific island national wildlife
refuges (NWRs) as part of their CCP processes.
• Marine ecosystem monitoring. Funding requests are required for additional exploration
of deep slope resources by a ship equipped with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV)
operating at depths between 150 and 300 feet, or submersible operating at depths between
60 and 3,000 feet.
• Seabird Nesting Restoration. Electronic callers are deployed and used as seabird nesting
attraction devices designed to attract Phoenix petrels (Pterodroma alba) and Polynesian
storm petrels (Nesofregetta fuliginosa). These electronic calling devices consist of solar
powered speakers broadcasting calls of both species in suitable areas of the island. Both
of these small ground-nesting Procellariforms are severely depleted or extirpated
throughout much of their range. The mammal-free status of Jarvis Island makes it an
ideal site within the species’ original range to restore a breeding population of each
species.
Once field operations are complete, or the weather becomes increasingly inclement, the field
camp is demobilized and all equipment and personnel are transported back to the research vessel.
Typically, the other two other equatorial refuges (Baker and Howland) are also visited in this
same manner. Travel time between Howland and Baker is 5 hours, and between Baker and
Jarvis is 2 days. Once the three surveys are completed, or at least attempted, the voyage
continues with approximately 6 to 7 days to travel back to Honolulu, again with intermediate
stops at Palmyra Atoll or Johnston Atoll NWRs, or continuing on for 4 days to Rose Atoll NWR
and Pago Pago American Samoa where voyage scientists and biologists can be exchanged and
then fly back to Honolulu. In total, it is expected that in order to visit Howland, Baker, and
Jarvis for 1 to 2 days per refuge, a biologist or marine scientist needs to devote 20 to 26 days
total travel. Trip reports are completed, distributed, and filed once field staff returns to the
Honolulu office.
The only difference between the management condition prior to the completion of the CCP, and
the actions described in this CCP is an increase in the frequency of staff visits from once every
two years to once every year. In order to meet the increase in the number of site visits, refuge
staff in Honolulu is administratively burdened to seek additional funding sources and develop
partnerships for additional visits. This may take the form of producing internal project proposals
(RONS), or seeking funding support through grants or partnerships with other agencies, research
institutions, and non-government organizations. Overall, wildlife and habitat management
activities remain consistent. The only additional terrestrial management activity is promoting
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nesting use by two seabird species with the use of solar powered electronic calling devices.
Phoenix petrel calls would be placed near areas with sufficient vegetation for cover and the
Polynesian storm-petrels calls would be placed near the coral slab habitat on the north beach
crest. Increased monitoring in the marine environment depends upon partnership opportunities
developed with NOAA, the University of Hawaii, or other partners. At a minimum, marine
scientists would resurvey REAs and other transects. Transportation to and from the island relies
upon NOAA or other partners. Public use and access remains closed.
The ability of the Service to meet the mission of the System, “…to administer a national network
of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where appropriate, restoration of the
fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United States for the benefit of
present and future generations of Americans.”; and the refuge purpose of “…the restoration and
preservation of the complete ecosystem, terrestrial and marine. Special consideration must be
given to the protection of nesting seabird populations.” is limited. A one to two day visit to the
island once every year does not provide the opportunity for refuge staff to complete anything
other than basic biological surveys of species presence or absence. Restoration, preservation, or
protection of terrestrial and marine ecosystems, or nesting seabirds is not possible. However,
lack of projected budget and staffing preclude management staff from increasing management
activity beyond what is described in this CCP. If, during the lifetime of this plan, budget and
staffing become available to pursue an increased level of management activity then the CCP will
be reevaluated.
Goals, Objectives, Strategies, and Rationale
Goals and objectives are the unifying elements of successful refuge management. They identify
and focus management priorities, resolve issues, and link to refuge purposes, Service policy, and
the Refuge System Mission.
A CCP describes management actions that help bring a refuge closer to its vision. A vision
broadly reflects the refuge purposes, the Refuge System mission and goals, other statutory
requirements, and larger-scale plans as appropriate. Goals then define general targets in support
of the vision, followed by objectives that direct effort into incremental and measurable steps
toward achieving those goals. Finally, strategies identify specific tools and actions to
accomplish objectives.
The goals for Jarvis over the next fifteen years under the CCP are presented on the following
pages. Each goal is followed by the objectives that pertain to that goal. The goal order does not
imply any priority in this CCP. Some objectives pertain to multiple goals and have simply been
placed in the most reasonable spot. Similarly, some strategies pertain to multiple objectives.
Following the goals, objectives, and strategies is a brief rationale intended to provide further
background information pertaining to importance of an objective relative to legal mandates for
managing units of the NWRS including refuge purpose, trust resource responsibilities (federally
listed Threatened and Endangered species and migratory birds), and maintaining/restoring
biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health.
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Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-5
Goal 1: Conserve, manage, and protect native terrestrial habitats that are
representative of remote tropical Pacific islands, primarily for the benefit of
seabirds.
Objective 1a: Conserve, manage, and protect habitat for nesting seabirds.
Upon CCP approval and throughout the life of the CCP, conserve, manage, and protect a
mosaic of approximately 1,273 acres of terrestrial habitat consisting of 73 acres of beach and
beach strand, 500 acres as short grass and forbs, 200 acres as scrub shrub, and 500 acres as
bare ground on Jarvis Island as nesting habitat for 15 seabird species.
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Conduct and record incidental observations of invasive species.
Adhere to strict quarantine protocols for all island visitors (see Appendix D).
Collect and stockpile marine and other human debris not considered to be historically
important.
Rationale:
The 15 nesting seabird species on Jarvis use all island habitats (see Chapter 4 and Appendix
B). Masked and brown boobies prefer to nest on bare open ground. Gray-backed, and sooty
terns, and brown and blue-grey noddies also nest on the surface, but are tolerant of vegetated
areas. Lesser frigatebirds, typically known as a tree-nesting species in some parts of their
range, are found exclusively on the ground at Jarvis. Red-tailed tropicbirds prefer shaded
areas and can be found nesting on the surface, under coral slabs, or in shrubs. Red-footed
booby and great frigatebird are the only two exclusive shrub nesting species.
The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes remote Pacific islands as providing
important and varied breeding habitat, specifically Jarvis as being important for ground nesting
species. Additionally, the plan recognizes that near-shore waters provide areas of upwelling
currents with important food resources for seabirds.
Maintaining the island free of mammalian predators, invasive insects, and invasive plants is
critical for seabird survival (USFWS 2005). Strict quarantine protocols have been previously
established for all island visitors in order to eliminate the threat of introducing invasive plants,
insects, and animals (see Appendix D).
Marine and other human generated debris poses an entanglement threat for multiple wildlife
species. Stockpiling debris can reduce the overall area affected, thereby reducing the
entanglement threat.
Objective 1b: Increase baseline information on terrestrial habitat.
Within 15 years of the CCP approval, conduct monitoring to determine vegetation species
presence/absence and distribution on Jarvis Island.
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Document presence/absence of island vegetation.
Coordinate with Regional Office GIS staff to assess and/or develop remote sensing capability
to map and monitor island habitats.
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Rationale:
In general, insufficient time has been spent on Jarvis to adequately quantify habitat on Jarvis,
and how this habitat relates to seabird biology. Collection of baseline biological information is
essential to adequately understand and manage the refuge. Although it is known that the 15
nesting seabird species use all habitats on Jarvis, this information has only been obtained from
the short duration, infrequent visits (1 to 2 days every 2 years) to the island. There has been no
quantitative assessment of breeding species habitat associations. The distribution and
delineation of habitats itself has been estimated, but never been quantified. Remotely
collected data may provide an option for data collection in the absence of being capable of
visiting Jarvis.
Goal 2: Conserve, manage, and protect native marine communities that are
representative of remote tropical Pacific islands.
Objective 2a: Conserve, manage, and protect marine habitat.
Upon CCP approval, conserve, manage, and protect approximately 36,214 acres of submerged
lands consisting of an estimated 3,000 acres coral reef and 33,214 acres of deep water/pelagic
habitat on Jarvis.
Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective
Continue and expand partnership with NOAA and others to manage coral reef ecosystems.
Rationale:
The conservation and protection of the Nation’s coral reefs is becoming increasingly important
for agencies with responsibility to manage and conserve those (Executive Orders 13089 and
13158). Because the refuge boundary for Jarvis extends to 3 nmi from the island shoreline, all
coral reefs are contained within the refuge boundary. Threats to the coral reef system include
invasive species such as crown-of-thorns starfish and marine debris (e.g. abandoned fishing
gear) that collects on corals, smothering or breaking them. The responsibility for protecting,
managing, and conserving coral reef ecosystems is shared with NOAA. The Service and
NOAA often participate in joint management activities throughout the Pacific; however, no
active management activities have occurred at Jarvis.
Objective 2b: Increase baseline information on marine community.
Within 15 years of CCP approval, monitor: coral species density, diversity, size/age structure,
and distribution; fish species presence/absence and habitat associations; sea turtle species
presence/absence; deep coral beds, and marine mammal species presence/absence; and
oceanographic conditions in relation to climate change effects..
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Conduct and record incidental observations of corals, other invertebrates, fish, sea turtles,
algae, marine mammals, and their habitats.
Accompany NOAA or other scientific partners on marine surveys.
Conduct REA (Rapid Ecological Assessments) on all existing survey routes to document coral,
fish and turtle density, diversity, distribution, and habitat associations.
Develop proposals and conduct deep slope marine surveys by ROV (remotely operated vessel)
to document presence/absence and distribution of deep slope coral and fish species.
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Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-7
Rationale:
Responsibility for investigating marine species is shared with NOAA, and has led to many
cooperative studies. Unlike the logistic constraints of completing terrestrial surveys, marine
surveys are conducted throughout the entire time that the marine transport vessel is at Jarvis.
Additionally, since most site visits to Jarvis are aboard NOAA research vessels, the purpose of
these voyages is to conduct marine surveys and studies. Consequently, a full compliment of
up to 20 marine researchers and 40 support staff contribute to conducting marine surveys
across all alternatives. As a result, marine surveys are now more comprehensive than
terrestrial surveys on Jarvis.
REAs constitute baseline monitoring of the marine ecosystem, and are one component of
several alternative strategies. Further expansion of REA’s could be accomplished only as a
component of Alternative D.
Additional surveys (marine mammals, deep slope), as described beginning with Alternative B
can be achieved as components of cooperative efforts with other agencies or research
organizations. As an example, little is known of marine mammal use surrounding Jarvis,
although it is known that some species are found in the vicinity and that fish populations are
very large near the submarine slopes of Jarvis.
The Marine Mammal Commission has encouraged the Service to generate partnerships with
NOAA to help document baseline information. Developing additional partnerships with
NOAA or other organizations may also assist in meeting terrestrial objectives by providing the
opportunity for additional trips to Jarvis.
Goal 3: Contribute to the recovery, protection, and management efforts for all
native species with special consideration for seabirds, migratory shorebirds,
federally listed threatened and endangered species, and species of
management concern.
Objective 3a: Develop baseline migratory bird and other species information.
Within 10 years of CCP approval, conduct monitoring (in rank order) to determine: seabird
species composition, relative abundance, breeding chronology, distribution, and habitat use;
inventory of shorebird species; species presence and distribution of sea turtles; and inventory
of terrestrial invertebrates on Jarvis Island. The desired conditions by which this will be met is
understanding of the complete annual chronology for 5 of 15 nesting seabird species;
population trend data over the 10-year period for all 15 nesting seabird species; and the
presence/absence and distribution of shorebirds, turtles and other terrestrial invertebrates.
Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective
Record incidental observations of all species , relative abundance, and distribution.
Rationale:
The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) repeatedly recognizes the importance of the U.S.
Pacific Islands in providing predator-free seabird nesting and roosting environments. Their
protected status, in concert with nearby marine forage resources contribute to their importance.
The Seabird Plan further identifies population monitoring inventories are insufficient to
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accurately detect or monitor population change, suggesting instead that a rigorous collection of
population data is needed.
In addition to Jarvis being recognized as important habitat for seabirds, the U.S. Pacific Islands
Regional Shorebird Conservation Plan (2004) lists determining baseline information for
bristle-thighed curlews, and other species, as the goal of the Central Pacific Islands Subregion.
The endangered species recovery plans for both species of sea turtles indicate that little is
known about their biology in the central Pacific. Data on other terrestrial wildlife species
found on Jarvis Island is lacking.
Objective 3b: Restore breeding populations for 2 seabird species.
Within 10 years of CCP approval, establish up to 5 nesting pairs each of Phoenix petrel
(Pterodroma alba) and Polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa) during a minimum of
three consecutive years on Jarvis Island.
Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective
Implement and maintain electronic calling devices to promote nesting
Rationale:
The Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) recognizes the Polynesian storm-petrel may now be
able to flourish on Jarvis, as well as Baker and Howland, due to the removal of predators from
the islands. The Phoenix petrel (Pterodroma alba) is known from the Phoenix Islands and
Kiritimati Island in the Line Islands, but does not currently inhabit Jarvis, though it is thought
that they did historically. A recommendation of the Seabird Conservation Plan (2005) is
expand efforts to assess habitat suitability and restore populations through translocation to
predator-free U.S. islands such as Jarvis. While the physical translocation of species to Jarvis
is not being suggested, solar-powered electronic calling devices are available and have been
successful, in attracting and establishing nesting seabird colonies to other islands.
Objective 3c: Develop baseline data and understand sea turtle use of Jarvis.
Upon CCP approval, monitor hawksbill and green sea turtles to document any nesting sites, all
adjacent coral reef and nearshore water foraging sites, and overall population density and
distributions.
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Record incidental observations of nearshore turtle use.
Develop partnership with NOAA for study of turtles at Jarvis.
Rationale:
There is currently little information related to use of Jarvis resources by sea turtles, though it is
known that they do use refuge habitats. Sea turtles have been photographed in the water
during joint Service/NOAA expeditions since 2000. Data collected over the life of this plan
would help to establish a baseline understanding of sea turtle populations in the central Pacific.
Sea turtles were harvested in the past on nearby Flint Island at the south end of the Line
Islands and perhaps other islands during the guano mining era of the late 18th century, and
perhaps sea turtle nesting could increase in the absence of human threats.
Objective 3d: Expand baseline information on marine community.
Upon CCP approval, monitor populations of globally depleted marine species such as giant
clams (Tridacna sp.), pearl oysters (Pinctada margaritifera) bumphead parrotfish
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Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-9
(Bolbometapon muricatum), Napoleon wrasses (Cheilinus undulatus), large groupers
(Cephalopholis sp., Epinephelus spp., Variola spp., etc.), sharks (Carcharhinus spp.,
Triaenodon spp., Negaprion spp., Galeocerdo spp., etc.), and corals (Anthozoa, Hydrozoa) to
document their presence/absence and relative abundance on Jarvis.
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Conduct marine surveys such as REA and permanent transect surveys
Solicit partnership for survey of deep slope habitat
Rationale:
Many marine species of commercial importance have been globally depleted. Protected areas
such as Jarvis still provide sanctuary areas. However, illegal fishing activity has been noted
surrounding several Remotes refuges. Jarvis, as well as other remote island refuges provide
the opportunity to study and protect marine ecosystems far from human populations.
Objective 3e: Develop baseline scientific information on marine mammal use of Jarvis.
Within 10 years of CCP approval, increase scientific understanding of marine mammal
presence and use of Jarvis marine waters. The desired conditions by which this will be met
will be to document all marine mammal use of nearshore waters.
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Incidental observations of marine mammal
Solicit partnership for study of marine mammals at Jarvis
Rationale:
NOAA, the Service, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Oceanic Institute, University of
Hawaii, and Bishop Museum marine biologists have collected data on marine species of
concern since 2000. Only anecdotal information exists on marine mammal use of the waters
surrounding Jarvis Island. However, studies elsewhere in the Pacific indicate that waters
surrounding small islands may support distinct local populations of marine mammals, and all
of the northern Line Islands appear to support resident populations of Mel on-headed whales.
It is also important to understand the threats human activity may pose to these important
species (Marine Mammal Commission. pers. comm.).
Goal 4: Protect, maintain, enhance, and preserve the wilderness character of
Jarvis’s terrestrial and marine communities.
Objective 4a: Protect and maintain wilderness values.
Upon CCP approval, continue to preserve the wilderness values (e.g. size, naturalness,
solitude, supplemental values) of Jarvis. Achievement of this objective will be evaluated by
assessing loss or degradation of values that qualified it for potential designation (see Appendix
F).
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Use minimum tools necessary to manage refuge resources
Continue to manage Jarvis as wilderness
Monitor values of naturalness and solitude.
Rationale:
Jarvis has been and is currently managed as a wild, natural area due to its remote location,
historic lack of human impact, and limited human presence. Areas of Jarvis have been
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identified as meeting the criteria for a Wilderness Study Area (Appendix F). Completion of
the wilderness review process and as appropriate development of a Legislative EIS will be
pursued for all Pacific Remote Island Refuges once their CCP’s have been completed.
Some human generated debris remains from past occupations. Additionally, debris such as
discarded fishing nets continuously washes ashore. This debris impinges upon wilderness
values.
In the interim, all areas identified as suitable WSAs would continue to be managed as
wilderness. All management activities would be conducted in such a manner as not to detract
from the wilderness values identified in the Wilderness Inventory.
Goal 5: Jarvis’s biological, cultural and historic resources are preserved.
Objective 5a: Protect cultural resources.
Upon CCP approval, continue to protect existing cultural resources. The desired conditions by
which this will be met will be to document any change in condition of the Jarvis Light day
beacon, or other recognized cultural/historical resource.
Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective
Record incidental observations of condition of cultural resources
Rationale:
Rationale: Restricting human use of Jarvis would maintain cultural resources by limiting the
opportunity for invasive species establishment, and reducing the opportunity for unauthorized
collection or disturbance. In order to keep cultural resource sites protected, the locations and
descriptions of fragile cultural resources would not be made available to the public.
Objective 5b: Enhance Law Enforcement Capabilities
Upon CCP approval, seek to improve partnerships with the NOAA Office of Law
Enforcement to increase enforcement capacity. The desired conditions by which this will be
met will be to formalize interagency agreements and develop remote surveillance techniques to
document unauthorized access to the refuge.
Strategies Applied to Achieve Objective
Establish joint enforcement operational protocols with NOAA Office of Law enforcement.
Evaluate the effectiveness of deploying acoustical devices to detect ship traffic in the vicinity
of the refuge.
Rationale:
Rationale: Enhancing law enforcement capability to detect and prosecute unauthorized access
would preserve biological and cultural resources by limiting the opportunity for invasive
species establishment and deterring unauthorized collection or disturbance.
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Chapter 3 – Management Direction 3-11
Goal 6: An informed, interested, and educated public appreciates remote
Pacific Island NWRs wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, and
their ecosystems, with special emphasis on seabirds.
Objective 6a: Provide off-site education and interpretation opportunities.
Within three years of CCP approval, develop an off-site educational opportunity for the public
to learn about Pacific Island refuge wilderness values, cultural and historical resources,
tropical island ecosystems, seabirds, and coral reefs. The desired conditions by which this will
be met will be through publications, educational programs, displays, or other media.
Strategy Applied to Achieve Objective
Develop, with External Affairs office, Honolulu, an interpretative brochure for all remote
Pacific Island refuges.
Rationale:
While it is important for the public to understand and appreciate the resource values associated
with remote island refuges, it is logistically difficult to do this on-site at Jarvis and still protect
the island’s wildlife, habitats, wilderness values, cultural and historical resources, and visitor’s
safety. For these reasons, interpretative or educational opportunities for the public to learn and
appreciate the values of remote Pacific Island refuges and resources will be provided primarily
as off-site programs and interpretative brochures.
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Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-1
Chapter 4: REFUGE AND RESOURCE DESCRIPTION
Geographic/Ecosystem Setting
Jarvis Island, located at approximately lat. 0º23’ S. and long. 160º01’ W is the sixth island and
considered to be a western outlier of the 11 Line Islands that stretch from 6ºN latitude to 11ºS
latitude. The Line Islands trend from north to south between longitudes 162º and 150ºW.
Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge anchors the northern end of the archipelago and Flint
Island anchors the southern end, about 390 nmi north of Tahiti in French Polynesia. It is
included in the Central Pacific subregion of the Polynesian Region of the Pacific Basin. This
subregion, the largest of four in the Polynesian Region, is the most remote part of the tropical
Pacific and includes only low-lying reef islands, atolls, and submerged reefs. Vegetation
patterns are determined by the highly variable but normally low rainfall levels found along the
Equator in the central Pacific. In turn, the arid weather and ocean circulation patterns impose
limits on floating seed plant dispersal strategies.
Jarvis falls in the central Pacific dry zone with rainfall less than 40 inches per year, and thus
“cannot support any forest or closed woody vegetation” (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998).
The nearest landmass is Kiritimati atoll (Christmas), 184 nmi to the north. Three of the Line
Islands are possessions of the United States (U.S.), all being administered as units of the NWRS.
Jarvis and Kingman Reef are both unincorporated U.S. territories, while Palmyra Atoll is the
only U.S. possession considered an incorporated U.S. Territory, meaning that the U.S.
Constitution applies in its entirety to that area. The remaining eight Line Islands are under the
jurisdiction of the Republic of Kiribati; their capital is Tarawa, located in the Gilbert Islands
1,621 nmi to the West. Although Johnston Atoll NWR anchors the northern end of the
submerged Line Island ridge, its biological characteristics are much closer aligned to those of
Hawai‘i and is not normally considered a part of the Line Islands (Maragos et al. 2008).
Climate
General climate and related oceanographic conditions in the central Equatorial Pacific
The climate associated with Jarvis Island can be generalized as being arid, warm, and tropical
with moderate breezes and light to moderate rainfall. Although differences in climate exist
among the islands, climate-monitoring stations are not readily available in the equatorial Pacific.
Consequently, current site-specific data is lacking for most central Pacific locations, or has only
been collected for a short period of time. Vitousek, et al. (1980), recorded meteorological
observations at Jarvis Island from 1974 to 1980 and these data will serve as the basis for this
summary.
There are several climatic factors that influence weather on Jarvis: trade winds, rainfall, and
oceanic currents. Trade winds are surface winds that typically dominate airflow in tropical
regions and predominate from the East at Jarvis between 13 to16 miles per hour. Atmospheric
pressure gradients range from high pressure areas located near lat. 30º N. and lat. 30º S., to the
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low pressure band located near lat. 5º N., driving both the northeast and southeast trade winds.
This area of low pressure located just north of the Equator is referred to as the ‘doldrums’ or the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and lacks these prevailing trade winds because they
converge and rise upward.
Solar heating also allows the moist air mass of the ITCZ to rise, thus cooling the air mass and
producing a band of heavy precipitation several degrees to either side of the ITCZ (Wallace and
Hobbs 1977). Jarvis’s position near the Equator places it outside this band of heavy
precipitation. Changes in these typical patterns occur seasonally and during periodic events
known as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During an ENSO event, the ITCZ shifts
south and east toward unusually warmer waters. At other equatorial islands, this shift typically
leads to lighter wind speeds and more rainfall (USFWS 2001, USFWS 1998a) but Jarvis did not
have an increase the in rainfall during the ENSO events of 1974 to 1976 that Kiritimati and
Tabuaeran (Fanning) Islands experienced (Vitousek et al. 1980).
Prevailing ocean currents surrounding Jarvis Island also influence weather patterns on the island
by moderating the surrounding surface air temperatures. These currents, except the Equatorial
Undercurrent (EUC), and North Equatorial Countercurrent (NECC), also roughly mimic the
direction of the trade winds. The eastward-flowing NECC is a relatively narrow surface current
that seasonally meanders between 5º and 10º North latitude, flows counter to the major
westward-flowing currents of the northern and southern hemispheres, and is situated just below
the ITCZ (USFWS 2001). In a sense, the NECC is a return flow of surface seawater running
down-slope back towards the eastern Pacific because of the lack of trade winds that would
otherwise drag surface waters in the opposite direction. Jarvis lays 400 nm south of the most
southerly approach of the NECC and is rarely directly influenced by the current (Gove in
Maragos et al. 2008).
The westward-flowing current lying north of the NECC is known as the North Equatorial
Current (NEC) and is not known to influence current and weather patterns near Jarvis. Just south
of the NECC is the westward-flowing South Equatorial Current (SEC). Jarvis is most always
within the flow regime of the SEC.
Jarvis Island also lies in the path of the subsurface easterly flowing Equatorial Undercurrent
(EUC) also referred to as the Cromwell Current. As the EUC strikes the submerged western
slopes of Jarvis Island, nutrient rich waters are deflected upward, enriching the primary
productivity of the surface waters surrounding Jarvis. These upwelling waters from the EUC are
slightly cooler than adjacent sea surface waters and may moderate the effects of localized and
periodic sea surface warming events. Variations in the upwelling that cause it to be strongest
during boreal spring are caused by variations in wind levels over various time scales (Gove et al.,
2006; Gove in Maragos et al. 2008).
Jarvis Island climate data
The nearest currently operating weather station to Jarvis is the Kiritimati weather station, located
at lat. 1º 52’ N., long. 157º20’ W., or roughly 184 nmi north of Jarvis (USFWS 1998a). This
station reports average total monthly rainfall of approximately 3 inches ranging from 0 to 20
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inches per month with precipitation consistent throughout the year (NOAA 1991) except for
increases during ENSO events.
Global Climate Change
A continuously growing body of unequivocal scientific evidence has emerged supporting the
anthropogenic nature of current global climate change. During the 20th century, the global
environment experienced variations in average worldwide temperatures, sea levels, and chemical
concentrations. Global air temperatures on the earth’s surface have increased by 1.3°F since the
mid 19th century (IPCC. 2007a). Eleven of 12 years from 1995 to 2006 are the warmest on record
since 1850 (IPCC 2007b). Global water temperatures have increased by 0.31º on average in the
upper 300 m during the past 60 years since 1948 and changes in ocean heat content have
penetrated as deep as 3000 meters (Levitus et al. 2005). Subsequently, sea levels rose
approximately 1.7 mm (0.07 in) ± 0.5 mm/yr during the 20th century (IPCC. 2007a); this rate
rose dramatically to 3.1 mm (0.122 in) ± 0.7mm/yr since 1993 (IPCC 2007b).
While the concept of climate change is widely accepted, the extent and impact of future changes
as well as the exact source (natural or human induced) remains a debate (OPIC 2000). Emerging
consensus contends that increasing quantities of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere,
especially carbon dioxide (CO2), are beginning to affect climate and may be the dominant force
driving recent warming trends. The amount of GHGs globally has grown due to human activities
since pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004 (IPCC 2007b).
Carbon dioxide has increased by about 80% in the same time period. The atmospheric
concentrations of CO2 and methane in 2005 were 379 ppm³ and 1774 ppb, respectively. These
amounts greatly exceed concentrations recorded in the global environment over the last 650,000
years (IPCC, 2007a). Other emissions and GHGs from human activity have enhanced the heat
trapping capability of the earth’s atmosphere, causing warmer temperatures. Although the
increase in carbon dioxide is largely attributed to fossil fuel use, land use changes have also
increased the amount of cleared land surfaces, thereby reflecting more solar radiation (IPCC
2001, IPCC 2007a, IPCC, 2007b).
Global forecasting models offer a variety of predictions based on different emission scenarios.
OPIC (2000) suggests that a further increase in GHG emissions could double atmospheric
concentrations of CO2 by 2060 and subsequently increase temperatures by as much as 2 to 6.5°F
over the next century. Recent model experiments by the IPCC (2007a) show that if GHGs and
other emissions remain at 2000 levels, a further global average temperature warming of about
0.18°F per decade is expected. Sea-level rise is expected to accelerate by two to five times the
current rates due to both ocean thermal expansion and the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps.
Consequently, patterns of precipitation and evaporation may be altered. These changes may lead
to more severe weather, shifts in ocean circulation (currents, upwelling), as well as adverse
impacts to economies and human health (OPIC 2000, IPCC 2001, Buddemeier et al. 2004, IPCC
2007a). Hansen, et al. (2008) propose that current models may underestimate the slower
feedback processes such as ice sheet disintegration, vegetation migration, and greenhouse gas
release from soils and that these factors may come into play in this century. These changes will
have a significant effect on the National Wildlife Refuges in the tropical Pacific. The changing
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global environment and the implications this may have for ecological and geological processes in
the Central Tropical Pacific are important considerations for future management of trust
resources there. The four areas of impact linked to global climate change that may have the
greatest potential effect on Jarvis Island NWR and its wildlife are sea level rise, weather and
ocean circulation changes, ecological disruptions and coral bleaching due to increased ocean
temperature, and oceanic chemical composition change.
Vitousek (1994) reported, “Changes in both climate and biological diversity are known with less
certainty than are changes in C02 concentrations, global biogeochemistry or land use.” Because
temperature is more variable both spatially and temporally than C02 concentration, it is difficult
to separate human-caused vs. natural background variation. However, it is certain that increasing
concentrations of C02 and other greenhouse gasses will cause increasing climate change
(Vitousek, 1994).
The equatorial locale for Jarvis places it near the path of anomalous water current and surface
wind conditions during ENSO events, but the paucity of weather and oceanographic data at
Jarvis renders it difficult to assess the impacts and trends of global climate change at the island.
The upward deflection of cool subsurface waters into shallow water by the upwelling effects of
the EUC further complicates an assessment of climate change effects, because this phenomenon
has been rarely reported outside of the three equatorial refuges (Howland, Baker, Jarvis).
The insular nature of both the terrestrial and coral reef habitats of Jarvis will result in the same
high vulnerability of resident organisms that is seen in range restricted or mountaintop species
elsewhere (Parmesan, 2006).
Sea Level Rise
While global temperature is projected to rise by 3.6 to 9ºF and sea level to rise by more than 31.5
inches during the next two centuries, sea levels have fluctuated by an order of 328 feet over the
past 18,000 years as natural background variation and thawing out from the last ice age
(Michener et al. 1997). Contributions to sea level rise by climate change are ice-sheet melting,
alpine glacier melting and thermal expansion of the sea. Sea levels have risen by 4-8 inches
during the past century (Michener et al. 1997). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC 2001) predicted a sea level rise of 3.5 inches to 34.6 inches by the year 2100 unless
greenhouse gas emissions were reduced substantially. They also suggested that continuing
greenhouse gas emissions could trigger polar ice-cap melting after 2100 accompanied by sea
level rise greater than 16 feet. More recent modeling indicates that melting could occur faster
than the IPCC predicted (Overpeck, et al. 2006).
Evidence also suggests that the world’s oceans are regionally divisible with regard to historic
fluctuations in sea level. Localized variations in subsidence and emergence of the sea floor and
plate-tectonics activity prevent extrapolations in sea level fluctuations and trends between
different regions. While researchers in IPCC (2007a) state that water levels in the equatorial
Pacific are rising at a rate of 1.2 to 2 mm per year, it may not be possible to discuss uniform
changes in sea level on a global scale, or the magnitude of greenhouse gas-forced changes, as
these changes may vary regionally (Michener et al. 1997). As an example, tide gauge records on
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Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-5
the Atlantic coast indicate a sea level rise of .06 to .16 in/year over the past century, whereas,
they have indicated a .35 to .39 in/year increase along the Gulf coast of the United States
(Michener et al. 1997).
Increases in sea level and associated increases in storm surges and storm intensity will affect
Jarvis Island. Shoreline erosion and salt water intrusion into subsurface freshwater aquifers have
been noted throughout the Pacific (Shea et al. 2001). Due to the deep marine slopes directly
adjacent to Jarvis Island, increases in sea level could significantly erode shorelines and overall
island surface area since opportunities for accretion of lands do not exist. Loss of breeding
habitat for seabirds, wintering grounds for migratory shorebirds, and habitat for native plants,
and land crabs are predicted at current rates of sea level rise.
Ocean temperature increases
Most climate projections suggest that more intense wind speeds and precipitation amounts will
accompany more frequent tropical typhoon/cyclones and increased tropical-sea surface
temperatures in the next 50 years (Walther et al. 2002, IPCC, 2007). The third IPCC (2001) has
concluded, with “moderate confidence” that the intensity of tropical cyclones is likely to increase
by 10 to 20 percent in the Pacific region when atmospheric levels of CO2 reach double pre-industrial
levels (IPCC 2001). One model projects a doubling of the frequency of 4 inches per
day rainfall events and a 15–18 percent increase in rainfall intensity over large areas of the
Pacific (IPCC 2001). The IPCCl (2007) states that it is “more likely than not” that the rise in
intense tropical cyclones is due to anthropogenic activity.
Above normal mean sea surface temperatures have been shown to cause bleaching and mortality
in corals both in nature and in the laboratory with bleaching generally occurring in shallower
waters (Floros et al. 2004). Coral bleaching, the expulsion of symbiotic zooxanthellae from
coral polyps and subsequent loss of photosynthetic pigments is the result of both natural and
anthropogenic stresses. Although corals may pale in response to seasonal increases in sea
surface temperature, there has been a higher frequency of large scale bleaching events since the
1980s (Nicholls et al. 2007). The most severe global bleaching event ever recorded occurred in
1997-98 when over 50 countries showed signs of bleaching (Grimsditch and Salm 2005). Many
species of coral currently exist in the upper limits of their specific temperature range; thus, an
increase in average sea surface temperatures (even by 1.8 or 3.6ºF) over a sustained period has
been shown to cause mass bleaching, especially in shallow waters habitats (Grimsditch and Salm
2005). Other variables have also been implicated in bleaching and mortality events, including,
extended periods of high temperatures, low wind velocity, clear skies, calm seas, low rainfall,
high rainfall, salinity changes, high turbidity or acute pollution. Floros et al. (2004) goes on to
note that, “The causes of coral bleaching are debatable, but widely thought to be the result of a
variety of stresses, both natural and human-induced, that cause the degeneration and the loss of
the colored zooxanthellae from the coral tissues.”
Bleaching episodes in equatorial islands appear to be linked to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO). Widespread bleaching events occurred during the El Niños of 1982-83, 1987-88, and
1997-98 (Buddemeier et al. 2004). During the warm phase of ENSO, or El Niño, sea-surface
temperatures are usually warm, trade winds weak, and sea level decreases in the western Pacific
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(IPCC 2001, Buddemeier et al. 2004). These combined factors result in a dramatic increase in
coral bleaching (Buddemeier et al. 2004). While El Niño events have increased in intensity and
frequency over the past decades, some longer-term records have not found a direct link to global
warming (Cobb et al. 2003) and do not predict significant changes in El Niño; however, they do
suggest an evolution toward more “El Niño-like” patterns (Buddemeier et al. 2004). Most
climate projections reveal that this trend is likely to increase rapidly in the next 50 years
(Walther et al. 2002).
If coral reef ecosystems do not acclimate to projected thermal stresses, more frequent bleaching
events and widespread mortality will occur. The ability of coral reef ecosystems to withstand
these impacts will depend on the extent of degradation from other anthropogenic pressures and
the frequency of future bleaching events (Nicholls et al. 2007).
Field observation of corals at Baker, Howland, and Jarvis during five separate expeditions from
2000-2006 indicate that corals may be recovering from a bleaching event that took place during
the previous few years (1997-1998). Corals continued to increase in cover and sizes, based upon
observations during all subsequent (post 2000) visits, including those at permanent transect sites
(Maragos 2008; Maragos et al. 2008a & 2008b, Miller et al. 2008). Although coral bleaching
was predicted to occur at Jarvis in 2003 based upon NOAA satellite based temperature and wind
data, no evidence of bleaching was reported there during the early 2004 and 2006 visits
(Maragos 2000-2006, unpublished data). One possible explanation is that the cool upwelling
waters of the EUC are buffering the effects of the otherwise warmer seawater temperatures at the
island.
Tudhope (2000) sampled 6 cores obtained from 2 large, 3-4 meter Porites coral heads at Jarvis in
1999 to track sea surface temperature and coral growth rates over several or more decades using
stable oxygen isotope as a measure of Sea Surface Temperature. He found a good correlation
between this measure and the NINO3.4 Index, which is one of the most widely used and reliable
indicators of the status of ENSO. The results of their work at Jarvis and at four other tropical
sites in the Line and Cook Islands contributed to demonstrating linkages between the tropics and
the North Pacific over hundreds of years (D’arrigo et al 2005). Hawaii Undersea Research
Laboratory (HURL) submersible dives at Jarvis in July 2005 revealed many deep-water corals,
and samples of some were taken for climate change and paleo-climate analyses (Rob Dunbar et
al. 2005). The results of these analyses are not yet available.
Oceanic acidification and atmospheric chemistry
Glacial and interglacial periods in the Earth’s history, as measured from deep Antarctic ice cores,
reveal cyclical fluctuations in the concentration of global CO2. However, recent increases fall
outside the range of peak prehistoric CO2 levels. Current atmospheric CO2 concentrations are at
their highest levels in more than 160,000 years, with humans emitting 25 billion tons of CO2
annually (Buddemeier et al. 2004). The rate of increase is also five to ten times more rapid than
any of the sustained changes in the ice-core record (Vitousek 1994). The higher the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, the greater the amount of CO2 dissolved in the surface
ocean. When CO2 dissolves in seawater it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), a weak acid that
releases additional hydrogen ions and increases the acidity of the ocean. In order to buffer this
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Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-7
acidity, the hydrogen ions react with carbonate (CO3
2-) ions and convert them to bicarbonate ions
(HCO3
-). However, this buffering ability has diminished due to the rapid rising CO2
concentrations and the global seawater pH has decreased by 0.1 units since 1750, with regional
variations (Royal Society 2005, IPCC 2007). Models predict that over the 21st century average
surface ocean pH will continue to fall between 0.14 and 0.35 units (IPCC 2007a).
Increased atmospheric CO2 and ocean acidification affect marine organisms. As the
concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions rises, the concentration of carbonate ions
decreases. Many corals and marine organisms use calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate ions from
seawater to secrete CaCO3 skeletons (Buddemeier et al. 2004, IPCC 2007). Change in carbon
dioxide levels will increase the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in seawater, thus reducing the
over-saturation of aragonite, a form of calcium carbonate that is the major building block for
coral reefs (Vitousek, 1994). On a transect in the Pacific Ocean that ran very near Jarvis, Feeley
et al. (2004) show that the aragonite saturation horizon is shallow and is shoaling compared to
the pre-industrial aragonite saturation horizon. This reduces the width of the zone in which
marine organisms have optimum aragonite concentrations for shell-building. The result of this is
uncertain but is thought to reduce the rate at which corals can deposit calcium carbonate, thus
reducing the rate at which coral reefs will be able to keep up with any increases in sea level. A
lowered calcification rate means calcifying organisms (corals) may grow skeletons at a slower
rate, lower density, and/or decreasing strength. Thus, changes in global seawater chemistry
reduce the ability of corals to successfully compete for space and increase susceptibility to
breakage (Grimsditch and Salm 2005). In addition to changes in the carbonate system, changes
in ocean chemistry may affect the availability of nutrients and toxins to marine organisms.
It should also be noted that chemical composition changes in the atmosphere may also affect
terrestrial ecosystems. For instance, the quantity of nitrogen available to organisms affects
species composition and productivity. Increase in nitrogen can alter species composition by
favoring those plant species that respond to nitrogen increases (Vitousek, 1994). Increased
carbon dioxide can also affect photosynthetic rates in plants, change levels and characteristics of
secondary compounds in plant tissues, change plant species composition, lower nutrient levels,
and lower weight gain by herbivores.
Geology and Soils
Jarvis Island is a low-lying, nearly level island with a slightly depressed central area surrounded
by a narrow shallow fringing reef. The submarine slopes descend steeply to great depths beyond
the fringing reefs. Surface deposits on the island consist of calcareous sands and coral rock. The
central depression is probably the remnants of an ancient lagoon and the result of the combined
effects of guano mining more than a century ago and wave action depositing sand rocks and
boulders around the island’s fringe to an elevation of 10-23 feet above sea level (Keating, 1992).
The island was likely formed as a result of submarine volcanic activity and changes in the earth’s
crust caused by continental tectonic plate movement, including emergence of a high volcanic
island, its later subsidence, reef accretion, and its gradual northwesterly drift away from the East
Pacific Rise over the past 50-80 million years. Although scientists since Darwin (1842) have
been pondering seamount, island, and atoll formation in the Pacific since the mid-1800s, the
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specifics of how Jarvis Island was formed have not been specifically investigated, although they
would likely follow the general sequence first postulated by Darwin.
The dominant theory of atoll formation states that islands form in deep tropical oceans as a result
of underwater volcanoes that grow to the surface to form high volcanic islands, giving coral
polyps a foundation to grow upon and form reefs fringing the island. In time, the volcano
becomes dormant, and its mass pushes down on the earth’s crust causing it and its island to
subside and shrink in size, while its fringing reefs continue to grow upward and maintain
proximity to the sea surface. Coral reefs, originally fringing the edges of a large island, become
a barrier reef around larger islands outlining the contour of the original coastline, with a lagoon
occupying the space vacated by the shrinking island. Eventually, further subsidence causes the
island to disappear completely from the lagoon leaving behind an atoll. However, for small
islands such as Jarvis, lagoons may not have formed at latter stages, and continued subsidence
has left only a small low reef island in its wake. Based upon deep drilling through the atolls in
the Marshall Islands in the 1940s and 1950s, it is believed that these processes occurred well
before the beginning of the last ice age (approximately 115,000 years ago) and encompassed
more than 50-60 million years and up to several thousand feet of reef growth equal to the degree
of subsidence over that time span. In addition, it is hypothesized that changes in sea level
associated with the end of the last ice age and the deposition of highly permeable coralline
limestone (calcium carbonate) derived from the remains of marine organisms likely contributed
to the carbonate platform that characterizes the contemporary geologic structure of Jarvis Island.
The entire western or leeward beach of the island is sandy and low, while the eastern side,
constantly pounded by waves generated by the trade winds, is higher, more abrupt, and covered
with coral rubble and sandstone slabs. There is no pronounced beach crest or central basin (dried
up lagoon) typically found on some larger low-lying reef islands. Soils of low-lying atolls in the
Pacific frequently consist of accumulated organic matter, guano, pumice or other transported
material on top of a calcareous sand or limestone substratum (Morrison 1990). The soil of Jarvis
Island is composed of coral fragments and light brown coral sand with a low percentage of
organic matter.
Hutchinson (1950) concluded that phosphates accumulate preferentially on islands, such as
Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands, that are situated in climatic dry belts used by large
populations of seabirds. Deposits of phosphate-rich soils have formed over time from guano
deposited on the island by fish-eating seabirds. Mild acids formed from the decomposition of
organic matter carry the guano downward in the soil to limestone soil layers were acids are
neutralized and calcium phosphate accumulated from the chemical changes. In addition, when
guano-beds are exposed to rain their soluble constituents are removed and the insoluble matter is
left behind. The soluble phosphates washed out of the guano may also become fixed to the coral
sand and limestone by the process described above. The calcium phosphate rocks and soil occur
among the sedimentary strata and were the principal sources of phosphate targeted for
commercial fertilizer and military use during the guano mining period between 1861 and
1891(see Chapter 3.15). Even after the guano mining era, the soil profile still contained heavy
guano deposits (Christophersen 1927).
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Hydrology
No information is available on the subsurface hydrology of Jarvis Island. However, its small
size and prevailing arid rainfall conditions would not likely result in the formation of a drinkable
groundwater lens. During staff visits to Jarvis, potable water is carried in containers to the island
for short visits, and could be produced on-site via reverse osmosis technology for prolonged
visits, just as it is now produced for permanent field stations at other remote Pacific Island
NWRs.
Air and Water Quality
Due to the lack of human presence, oceanic and air quality are expected to be good and lacking
in pollutants. The acoustic environment at Jarvis is completely natural without any
anthropogenic noise except during periodic visits. On the island, dominant natural sounds
include the wind, calls of seabird and shorebirds, and seawater lapping on the shoreline with
wave action crashing further offshore on the outer reef margin. Underwater the dominant sounds
are wave action and surge striking the reef slopes and the sounds of thousands of feeding and
moving invertebrates and fish.
Environmental Contaminants
The most recent human activity at Jarvis Island that resulted in possible environmental
contamination occurred between 1974 and 1980. The NORPAX Line Islands Monitoring
Experiment included an automated weather station at Jarvis that consisted of a various
meteorological and oceanographic sensors, a small hut housing the electronics box, a 100 watt
FSK radio transmitter, radio and sensor towers, wind generators, solar panels, primary and
secondary batteries, and power control circuits. Power for the station was stored in 18-volt lead-acid
batteries and radio transmission powered by 12 volt batteries (Vitousek et al., 1980). At
least some of these batteries and some of the other metallic objects were left behind on Jarvis at
the end of this research.
Other periods of human occupation at Jarvis include an 18 month occupation of Jarvis from 1
July 1957 to 31 Dec 1958 by a party of oceanographers from Scripps Institution of
Oceanography during the International Geophysical Year. They left a house in 1958, which is
no longer standing. Panalā’au colonists occupied the island from 1935 to 1942 and as many as
80 guano miners at any given time worked there from 1858 to 1879. The guano mining process
itself does not result in harmful tailings so only substances that may have been left by the miners
or subsequently by the colonists might qualify as environmental contamination on the refuge.
The east end of Jarvis was shelled by a Japanese submarine in 1942. A large storm from the
north in 1958 washed away practically all evidence of the guano miners and the Panalā’au
colonists from the Millersville landing area.
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Terrestrial Vegetation and Habitats
Jarvis Island is vegetated with grasses, herbaceous plants, and shrubs. Only strand species able
to survive long periods of drought and irregular opportunities to reproduce during the infrequent
wet years of the ENSO persist here. By 1924 when Christophersen (1927) did the first thorough
survey of Jarvis Island’s vegetation, there had already been approximately a century of visits by
Europeans and guano miners. Despite this traffic and the potential for introductions,
Christophersen found a very depauperate flora consisting of 6 native species (Lepturus repens,
Eragrostis whitneyi, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Boerhavia tetrandra, Portulaca lutea, Tribulus
cistoides. Other plants currently surviving such as Abutifolium indicum, and Sida fallax were
most likely accidentally introduced by the guano miners. Still other plants were purposefully
introduced through the years, perhaps even repeatedly, but do not persist. (see Appendix B). On
a short visit in 2004, only 7 species of plants were located (Rauzon and Wegmann 2004). It is
likely that seeds of additional species are regularly washing up on the beach and then dying back
as conditions become too dry or high surf washes the plant away. Table B-3, Appendix B, lists
all the plant species of Jarvis Island, and the most recent information about current presence or
absence.
The structure of the plant community is grassland and low herbaceous cover. The Sida and
Abutilon in the interior serve as important nesting and roosting habitat for the red-footed booby
and cover for wintering bristle-thighed curlews. Great frigatebirds and white terns also prefer to
nest above the ground on the few shrubs available, but all the other species nest directly on the
ground. Shrubs and rock piles also provide shade and daytime cover for the numerous land
hermit crabs, Coenobita perlatus that inhabit Jarvis Island.
Terrestrial Wildlife
Seabirds, shorebirds, lizards, vegetation, insects, crabs, and invasive rats and feral cats were
observed and studied at Jarvis Island during the current century. The Service subsequently
eradicated cats from the island that enabled several nesting seabird species to re-colonize the
island.
Seabirds and Land Mammals
There are no native land mammals at Jarvis Island. Numerically dominant vertebrates are
seabirds and migratory shorebirds. Earliest ornithological surveys at Jarvis Island took place
long after the introduction of the Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans, so the composition of the avian
community prior to human contact can only be surmised by looking at other islands in the
Phoenix and Line Archipelagos that did not suffer the invasion of rats. The findings of the
ornithologist on the Whippoorwill Expedition of 1924 have never been published. The only
ornithological records prior to 1963, when scientists from the Smithsonian Institution visited
eight times between 1963 and 1965, are those of Harold Kirby (1925) who visited in 1924 and
mentions only 6 species of the large Pelecaniform birds breeding. Table B-4 in Appendix B lists
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-11
species and estimates of numbers for seabird species on all visits since 1973. Jarvis Island falls
into Bird Conservation Region (BCR) 68 along with all the other island territories of the U.S.
Cats were introduced to Jarvis sometime during period between 1935–1942. The scientists of
the POBSP found nine species of seabirds breeding at Jarvis in 1963 (Clapp, R.B, 1967). Cats
were finally removed in 1990 (Rauzon, 1990) and since then there has been a remarkable
recovery of almost the entire seabird community. Most spectacular has been the rapid
resurgence of blue noddies. There were none found breeding until 1982 when one nest was
located. By 2004 Rauzon and Wegmann (2004) observed 650 birds making Jarvis now one of
the largest blue noddy colonies in the world. The recovery of this species as well as the re-colonization
of 3 shearwater species at Jarvis coincides with the continuing destruction of the
formerly enormous seabird colony at Kiritimati as more and more citizens of Kiribati are settled
there. Jarvis has consequently become the largest seabird colony in the Central Pacific. The
three most numerous breeding species at Jarvis are the sooty tern (Onychoprion fuscatus), brown
noddy (Anous stolidus), and masked booby (Sula dactylatra).
Several species of concern exist or have the potential to exist on Jarvis. The Phoenix petrel
(Pterodroma alba) is considered a bird of National Conservation Concern by the Service and is
listed by the IUCN as Vulnerable. The Polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa) and
blue noddy (Procelsterna cerulea) are Birds of Conservation Concern at the regional level
(USFWS 2005). Both the Phoenix petrel and the Polynesian storm-petrel probably occurred at
Jarvis Island prior to the introduction of rats.
Shorebirds
Species occurrence and counts of the four migratory shorebird species recorded from Jarvis
Island are displayed in Table B-4, Appendix B. The most common migrants wintering at Jarvis
are the Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva) and bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis).
All four shorebird species are considered species of High Concern in the national conservation
priority scheme for shorebirds (Engilis and Naughton 2004). All of the species are also labeled
as high concern in the Birds of Conservation Concern in BCR 68 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. 2002). These islands provide crucial wintering habitat and may serve as rest-stops for
arctic-breeding shorebirds wintering farther south in the Pacific Islands.
Reptiles
Only one species of terrestrial reptile has been reported from Jarvis Island, a gecko, most likely
the mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris). This species was documented in the stomach of
a cat at Jarvis (Kirkpatrick and Rauzon, 1986) and may have served as alternate prey for cats
when they were present on Jarvis Island.
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4-12 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description
Invertebrates (crabs and insects)
Jarvis Island is home to a large number of the land crab, Coenobita perlatus. Their large
biomass plays a dominant role in terrestrial food webs on the island where they consume a wide
variety of organic matter of all types. Other terrestrial arthropods and mollusks are very poorly
known. Recent observations, but not collections, during visits by Service biologists include
house flies, small ants, moths and millers, butterflies, and spiders. Kirkpatrick and Rauzon
(1986) compared food habits of feral cats at Howland and Jarvis Islands and while there were
crickets, cockroaches and Tenebrionid beetles in the stomach of Jarvis cats (n=73), no insect
remains were found in a smaller sample (n=5) of Howland Island cats.
Marine Habitats, Fish, and Wildlife
Previous surveys
Before regular marine assessment and monitoring efforts began in 2000, marine scientists visited
Jarvis to collect fish, corals, and perhaps other reef life, but there were no systematic surveys of
the reefs accomplished or reported in the literature. Six sets of recent surveys through early 2008
have been accomplished in cooperation with the NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center
(PIFSC) and their research vessels (Townsend Cromwell, Oscar Elton Sette, and Hi‛ialakai),
primarily through the sponsorship of the Center’s Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED)(R.
Brainard, per. comm.). The surveys since 2000 are of several types including: oceanographic
data collection, towed diver surveys, rapid ecological assessments (REA) at stationary sites, and
collections of marine animals and plants for identification and description in the lab. The
Service with assistance from CRED established three permanently-marked transects to document
trends in corals and some macro-invertebrates over time between 2000 and 2006. In addition,
the University of Hawaii/NOAA sponsored HURL program accomplished several deep
submersible dives at Jarvis in July 2005 to depths of 3,000 feet, and reported large populations of
fish and deep corals off the west side of the island where the EUC impinges on the submarine
slopes of the island
Despite these intense efforts, several important habitats at Jarvis have not been adequately
surveyed. Windward (north and east facing) reefs were inaccessible during most visits because
of tradewind generated waves close to the reef and onshore winds that would push the dive skiffs
too close to the reefs. Moreover, due to safety concerns, dives have generally been limited to
depths of 60 feet and one hour duration. Because of these limitations, some important habitats
are still poorly sampled and deep slope habitats (164 to 3,000 feet) within the refuge remain
mostly unexplored, except for the 2005 HURL dives and 2006 acquisition of high resolution
bathymetry of Jarvis Island NWR from Multi-Beam™ surveys (Miller in Maragos et al. 2008)
and substantial oceanographic data (Gove et al. 2006; Gove in Maragos et al. 2008).
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-13
Submergent Habitats
Jarvis Island’s shallow marine benthic habitats consist of fringing reef crests, shallow back reefs,
steep fore reefs, spurs-and-grooves, and small reef terraces, the last two habitats are restricted to
the windward (east side) of the island. In addition, shallow short channels may have been
blasted through the narrow fringing reef during the pre-World War II era to facilitate small boat
access between the shoreline and ocean off the south and west sides of the island. The deep
slope habitats below depths of 60 feet have not been surveyed by divers, although remotely
operated vehicles (ROVs) have been launched to collect video and camera based data. Pelagic
habitats occur further offshore beyond the influence of upwelling and nearshore oceanographic
processes. Nearshore habitats include distinct upwelling zones off the west side of the island and
oligotrophic waters off the windward reefs. The PIFSC has conducted oceanographic research
off the island to contrast the difference between nutrient rich upwelling zones and the ambient
nutrient poor ocean conditions outside areas of upwelling currents.
Reef Life
The dominant reef life that has been studied during post 1997 expeditions include, benthic algae
(Peter Vroom, Kim Paige, per. comm.) corals, anemones, and coral disease (John Schmerfeld,
Jim Maragos, Bernardo Vargas, and Jean Kenyon, per. comm.), other reef invertebrates (Scott
Godwin, Dwayne Minton, and Robin Newbold, per. comm.), and reef fishes (Mundy et al 2002.,
Ed DeMartini, Bruce Mundy, Brian Zgliczynski, Brian Green, Richard Wass, Alan Friedlander,
Stephanie Holzwarth, and others, per. comm.). Summary data on coral, other invertebrates,
algae, and fish surveys data for Jarvis are reported in Maragos et al. 2008.
The giant clam (Tridacna maxima) is abundant Jarvis Island and is listed under the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Also found on
Jarvis, the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulates) is also listed under CITES and designated as
Endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Corals
Coral diversity at Jarvis Island
Five coral surveys completed at Jarvis from 2000-2006 have documented 50 species and 20
genera of coral, all but 2 of which are stony coral species (see Appendix B, Table B-1). Calm sea
conditions allowed the March 2006 REA team to survey several sites off the north and east sides,
providing more complete coverage than has been accomplished during any prior visit to Jarvis.
Nine 2006 transect surveys accounted for 14 of the 22 genera reported from Jarvis, although 5
genera (Montipora, Pocillopora, Pavona, Distichopora, and Millepora) accounted for more than
95% of the corals (Figure 3.1). No new genera and species of corals were reported during the
2006 visit. The normally dominant coral genera of Acropora and Porites were low in numbers
although many of the Porites colonies were large. The coral fauna at Jarvis is unusual in being
Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan
4-14 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description
low in diversity compared to that of the neighboring Line Islands surveyed during the past
several decades. Jarvis’s geographic isolation, lack of protected lagoon habitats and small size
compared to the other islands may be responsible for this anomaly. Mean generic richness was
low at all REA sites ranging from 5 to 9 genera per 50m2 transect area. The eastern and northern
(windward) reef sites showed slightly higher generic richness but lower overall abundance.
Figure 4.1 Percentages of coral genera reported during March 2006 surveys, Jarvis Island
NWR (after Maragos 2006).
Coral populations
Figures 3.2 and 3.3 summarize the characteristics of the coral populations at the nine 2006 Jarvis
sites. A total of 3,237 corals were counted on the transect sites, but there were differences among
the sites. The frequency of corals (mean number per m2) was lowest at windward sites varying
from 2 to 4 corals per m2. Coral frequency values were highest on the south and west sides of
the island with frequencies there ranging from 8 to 13 corals per m2. These sites along with a
northwest corner site also supported the largest coral colonies and the same sites and showed
higher mean diameter levels for corals. Jarvis is exposed to large northwest swells due to its
more westerly position relative to its northern Line Island neighbors, which may impede coral
development. The REA sites protected from both these swells and the southeasterly trade winds
appear to support larger and more numerous corals, although windward coral communities
appear to be more diverse.
Percent of Coral Genus Reported
During March 2006 Surveys,
Jarvis Island NWR
Distichopora
3%
Fungia
2%
Pavona
4%
Montipora,
50%
Other
5%
Pocillopora
36%
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Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-15
Changes in coral populations over time
Data from the 2004 REA surveys were available for 3 sites to offer comparisons to 2006 surveys
at the same sites. In all cases coral populations were more abundant and diverse in 2006
compared to 2004. Many more corals and higher frequencies were reported at all sites in 2006.
For example, 2004 frequency values ranged from 1 to 2.5 corals per m2, but ranged from 2 to 7
corals per m2 in 2006. Many smaller size classes were more numerous in 2006, although one
larger size class (41 to 80 cm in diameter) was more abundant at the sites in 2004. Generic
diversity increased from 3 to 4 genera in 2004 to 5 to 8 genera in 2006. Preliminary results from
the analysis of permanent quadrat data at site JAR-4P off the south side of Jarvis reveal dramatic
increases in corals from 2000 to 2006. Overall, corals appear healthy and growing at Jarvis sites
based upon diversity and population parameters. The corals of Jarvis may be rebounding from a
global warming and bleaching event of the late 1990s.
Figure 4.2 Size class distributions of corals at 9 REA sites, Jarvis Island NWR 2006
Figure 4.3 Changes in the number of corals per age class between 2000 & 2006 at site 4P,
Jarvis Island NWR.
Changes in the number of Corals per Age Class
between 2000 & 2006 at Site 4P, Jarvis Island NWR
0
50
100
150
200
250
All Corals Montipora Pocillopora
1-5 cm
6-10 cm
11-20 cm
21-40 cm
41-80 cm
81-160 cm
> 160 cm
2000 2006 2000 2006 2000 2006
Size
Class
Size class distribution of corals at 9 REA sites, Jarvis Island NWR 2006
0 100
300
500
700
900
1-5 cm 6-10 cm 11-20 cm 21-40 cm 41-80 cm 81-160 cm >160 cm
size classes
Number
of
Corals
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4-16 Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description
Nearshore Fish
There are approximately 277 species of reef fish known from Jarvis Island reefs (Mundy et al
2002; Table B-2). This compares with 247 species from Baker Island and 342 species from
Howland Island by the same investigators. There were disparities among the fish faunas of each
of the islands, with some fish families and genera common at one island and other fish families
and genera at the two other islands. Possible explanations for these differences may be that
sampling and survey intensities may be insufficient and different between the three islands, or
that geographic isolation may result in differential recruitment rates between the three islands.
Fish well represented at Jarvis included sharks, groupers, damselfish, wrasses, blennies, and
surgeon fishes. Also common were rays, eels, soldierfish, scorpionfish, cardinalfish, snappers,
goatfish, butterflyfish, angelfish, hawkfish, parrotfish, and triggerfish were common.
Reef fish populations at Jarvis appeared very abundant, healthy, and diverse with little indication
of unauthorized harvest (Maragos, per. comm.). The upwelling phenomenon off the west side of
Jarvis seemed especially strong during the six visits there since 2000, and fish populations may
be benefiting from nutrient-subsidized productivity from the upwelling currents, resulting in
large diverse populations of many families of fish.
The fact that the disparities for the coral genera did not track in the same direction as for the fish
families (fewer coral genera vs. more fish abundance and variety at Jarvis), reinforces the
hypothesis that geographic isolation may lead to biodiversity heterogeneity based on chance and
differential recruitment success. Geographic isolation would require both corals and reef fish to
rely more on local recruitment vis-à-vis external recruitment. The latter would likely play a
much larger role where reefs and islands are larger and closer together and result in similar
biodiversity characteristics.
Marine Mammals
Very little information is available on marine mammal populations in the vicinity of Jarvis.
However, on most visits to Jarvis Island, a group of approximately 40 bottle-nosed dolphins
(Tursiops truncatus) appears as the ship approaches the island. Formal quantitative surveys of
marine mammal distribution and abundance have not been undertaken at Jarvis.
Pelagic Wildlife
Oceanic pelagic fish including skipjack, yellowfin tuna, and blue marlin prefer warm surface
layers, where the water is well mixed by surface winds and is relatively uniform in temperature
and salinity. Other pelagic species—albacore, bigeye tuna, striped marlin, and swordfish―
prefer cooler, more temperate waters, often meaning higher latitudes or greater depths. In fact,
the largest proportion of the tuna catch in the Pacific Ocean originates from the warm pool, even
though paradoxically this is a region of low primary productivity. Tuna movement to upwelling
zones at the fringe of the warm pool may be key in resolving this apparent discrepancy between
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Chapter 4 – Refuge and Resource Description 4-17
algal and tuna production. Preferred water temperature often varies with the size and maturity of
pelagic fish, and adults usually have a wider temperature tolerance than subadults. Thus, during
spawning, adults of many pelagic species usually move to warmer waters, the preferred habitat
of their larval and juvenile stages.
Large-scale oceanographic events (such as El Niño) change the characteristics of water
temperature and productivity across the Pacific, and these events have a significant effect on the
habitat range and movements of pelagic species. Tuna are commonly most concentrated near
islands and seamounts that create divergences and convergences, which concentrate forage
species, and also near upwelling zones along ocean current boundaries and along gradients in
temperature, oxygen, and salinity. Swordfish and numerous other pelagic species tend to
concentrate along food-rich temperature fron