Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment

              Hakalau Forest
National Wildlife Refuge
Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan
and Environmental Assessment
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (Ka Pu‘uhonua Waonahele Aupuni ‘o Hakalau)
Aia no¯ i uka i ke kua ko‘olau o Mauna Kea ka pu‘uhonua waonahele aupuni ‘o
Hakalau. He wahi ke¯ia e hui ai ka¯naka e laulima ma o ke ka‘analike aku, ka‘analike
mai i ka ‘ike, ka no‘eau, a me ka mana i mea e ho‘opalekana, ho‘oikaika, a ho‘o¯la hou
ai i ke ola maoli e noho ana ma ka waonahele. Ua kapa ‘ia ka inoa ‘o Hakalau no
ka nui o na¯ haka e noho ‘ia e na¯ manu ‘o¯iwi. I ke¯ia la¯ ‘o Hakalau kekahi o na¯ home
nunui no ka hui manu Hawai‘i ‘ane make loa. K¯ıkaha a‘ela n¯a manu, n¯a pua laha ‘ole
ho‘i, i ka ‘ohu‘ohu o Hakalau a ma lalo iki e mu¯kı ¯kı ¯ i ka wai pua ‘o¯hi‘a. Ua nani no¯ ka
‘ikena a ‘upu a‘ela no¯ ke aloha no ke¯ia ‘a¯ina nei no na¯ kau a kau.
On the windward slope of majestic Mauna Kea, midway between summit and sea,
lies Hakalau Forest NWR, a place where people come together to laulima, “many
hands working together,” to share their knowledge, to share their skills, and to
share their energy to protect, to enhance, to restore, and to respect Hawaiian
wildlife. Known to Hawaiians as “place of many perches,” verdant rainforest
supports the largest populations of endangered Hawaiian forest birds. Crimson,
orange, yellow and green hued birds, the jewels of Hakalau, flit through the mist,
pausing to sip nectar from ‘o¯hi‘a lehua, inspire joy and wonder for present and
future generations.
Kona Forest Unit (Ka Waonahele o Kona)
Mai Mauna Kea no¯ a ka‘a i lalo, a hiki aku i Mauna Loa, ma laila no¯ ka waonahele
o Kona, kahi e noho lewalewa ana na¯ ao ‘o¯pua i ka ‘uhiwai e ho¯‘olu‘olu ana i ka ulu
la¯‘au. ‘Ike ‘ia ka ‘io e kı ¯kaha ana ma luna loa o ka papa kaupoku i ho‘owehiwehi ‘ia
me ka limu. Ma lalo o ke kaupoku koa me ‘o¯hi‘a, e ‘imi ana ka ‘alala¯ me kona hoa
manu i ka hua‘ai, wai pua, a me na¯ mea kolokolo i mea ‘ai na la¯kou. Aia no¯ ma ka
malumalu o na¯ ana kahe pele kahiko na¯ mea kanu ka¯ka‘ikahi o ka ‘a¯ina, a me na¯ iwi
o na¯ manu make loa ma Hawai‘i. Kuahui maila no¯ na¯ hoa ma¯lama ‘a¯ina i ola hou ka
nohona o na¯ mea ‘ane make loa ma ke¯ia ‘a¯ina nui a¯kea.
On leeward Mauna Loa, where the clouds kiss the slopes with cool gray fog, lies the
Kona Forest. ‘Alala¯ and other Hawaiian forest birds forage for fruit, nectar, and
insects amongst the lichen-draped branches and canopy of the old-growth koa/‘o¯hi‘a
forest, while the ‘io soars overhead. In their damp darkness, ancient lava tubes and
cave systems shelter rare plants, archaeological resources, and the bones of extinct
birds. Conservation partners collaborate to restore habitat for the native and
endangered species across the landscape.
A Vision of Conservation
Background Photo:
Ohia tree/©Lesa Moore
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan
and Environmental Assessment
Prepared by:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex
60 Nowelo Street, Suite 100
Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Pacific Islands Planning Team
300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Room 5-231
Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96850
August 2010
Comprehensive Conservation Plans provide long-term guidance for management decisions and set
forth goals, objectives, and strategies needed to accomplish refuge purposes and identify the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s best estimates of future needs. These plans detail program planning
levels that are sometimes substantially above current budget allocations and, as such, are primarily
used for strategic planning and program prioritization purposes. The plans do not constitute a
commitment for staffing increases, operational and maintenance increases, or funding for future land
acquisition.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment
Table of Contents i
Table of Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Proposed Action ................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Purpose and Need for the CCP ........................................................................................... 1-9
1.4 Content and Scope of the Plan ............................................................................................ 1-9
1.5 Planning and Management Guidance .............................................................................. 1-10
1.5.1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mission ..................................................................... 1-10
1.5.2 National Wildlife Refuge System ............................................................................... 1-10
1.5.3 National Wildlife Refuge System Mission and Goals ................................................ 1-11
1.5.4 National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act ............................................... 1-11
1.6 Relationship to Previous and Future Refuge Plans ........................................................ 1-13
1.6.1 Previous Plans ............................................................................................................ 1-13
1.6.2 Future Planning .......................................................................................................... 1-13
1.6.3 Relationship to Ecosystem Planning Efforts .............................................................. 1-14
1.6.4 Threatened and Endangered Species Recovery Plans ................................................ 1-19
1.7 Planning and Issue Identification ..................................................................................... 1-27
1.7.1 Public Scoping Sessions ............................................................................................. 1-27
1.7.2 Interagency Scoping ................................................................................................... 1-29
1.7.3 Forest Bird Workshop ................................................................................................ 1-30
1.8 Refuge Purposes ................................................................................................................. 1-32
1.8.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Purposes .................................................................................. 1-32
1.8.2 Kona Forest Unit Purposes ...................................................................................... 1-32
1.9 Refuge Vision ..................................................................................................................... 1-33
1.10 Refuge Goals ..................................................................................................................... 1-34
1.11 References ......................................................................................................................... 1-35
Chapter 2: Alternatives, Goals, Objectives, and Strategies ......................................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Features Considered but Dismissed from Further Consideration ................................. 2-1
2.3 Alternative Descriptions ...................................................................................................... 2-2
2.3.1 Features Common to All Alternatives .......................................................................... 2-2
2.3.2 Alternative Description Summary ................................................................................ 2-5
2.4 Goals, Objectives, and Strategies ..................................................................................... 2-21
2.4.1 Kona Forest Unit ........................................................................................................ 2-22
2.4.1.1 Goal 1: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community
on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa as habitat for all life-history needs
to promote the recovery of endangered species (e.g., forest birds,
‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, and invertebrates). ............................................................... 2-22
2.4.1.2 Goal 2: Protect and maintain lava tube and lava tube skylight habitat
throughout the Kona Forest Unit, with special emphasis on their unique
and endemic flora and fauna. ............................................................................. 2-29
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2.4.2 Hakalau Forest Unit .................................................................................................... 2-30
2.4.2.1 Goal 3: Protect, maintain, and restore subtropical rainforest community
on the windward slope of Mauna Kea as habitat for all life-history needs
of endangered species (e.g., forest birds, ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, plants, and
invertebrates) ..................................................................................................... 2-30
2.4.2.2 Goal 4: Protect and maintain wetland and aquatic habitats (e.g., streams
and their associated riparian corridors, ponds, and bogs) on the Hakalau
Forest Unit. ........................................................................................................ 2-39
2.4.2.3 Goal 5. Protect and maintain grassland habitat to support nēnē population
recovery ............................................................................................................. 2-42
2.4.3 Both Hakalau Forest and Kona Forest Units .............................................................. 2-45
2.4.3.1 Goal 6: Collect scientific information (inventories, monitoring, research,
assessments) necessary to support adaptive management decisions on
both units of Hakalau Forest NWR. .................................................................. 2-45
2.4.3.2 Goal 7: Visitors, with a special emphasis on experience gained through
volunteer work groups and local residents, understand and/or value
the native forest environment and management practices at Hakalau
Forest NWR. ...................................................................................................... 2-49
2.4.3.3 Goal 8: Protect and manage cultural resources and historic sites for their
educational and cultural values for the benefit of present and future
generations of Refuge users and communities. ................................................. 2-53
2.5 References ........................................................................................................................... 2-55
Chapter 3. Physical Environment................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 Climate ................................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Climate ........................................................................................ 3-2
3.1.2 Kona Forest Unit Climate ............................................................................................. 3-3
3.2 Geology and Soils ................................................................................................................. 3-4
3.2.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Geology and Soils ...................................................................... 3-4
3.2.2 Kona Forest Unit Geology and Soils ............................................................................ 3-6
3.3 Hydrology ............................................................................................................................. 3-8
3.3.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Hydrology ................................................................................ 3-10
3.3.2 Kona Forest Unit Hydrology ...................................................................................... 3-11
3.4 Topography ........................................................................................................................ 3-11
3.4.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Topography .............................................................................. 3-12
3.4.2 Kona Forest Unit Topography .................................................................................... 3-12
3.5 Environmental Contaminants .......................................................................................... 3-12
3.5.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Contaminants ........................................................................... 3-12
3.5.2 Kona Forest Unit Contaminants ................................................................................. 3-13
3.6 Land Use ............................................................................................................................. 3-13
3.6.1 Local Land Use Designations: Hakalau Forest Unit ................................................. 3-13
3.6.2 Local Land Use Designations: Kona Forest Unit ...................................................... 3-15
3.7 References ........................................................................................................................... 3-17
Chapter 4: Biological Environment................................................................................................ 4-1
4.1 Biological Integrity Analysis ............................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Conservation Target Selection and Analysis ..................................................................... 4-1
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4.3 Habitats ................................................................................................................................ 4-5
4.3.1 Hakalau Forest Unit ...................................................................................................... 4-5
4.3.2 Kona Forest Unit ........................................................................................................ 4-10
4.4 Endangered Hawaiian Forest Birds ................................................................................. 4-17
4.4.1 ‘Akiapōlā‘au ............................................................................................................... 4-19
4.4.2 Hawai‘i ‘Ākepa .......................................................................................................... 4-26
4.4.3 Hawai‘i Creeper.......................................................................................................... 4-28
4.4.4 ‘Ō‘ū ............................................................................................................................ 4-29
4.4.5 ‘Ālalā .......................................................................................................................... 4-31
4.4.6 ‘Io ............................................................................................................................... 4-33
4.5 Other Native Hawaiian Forest Birds ............................................................................... 4-35
4.5.1 ‘I‘iwi ........................................................................................................................... 4-36
4.5.2 Common ‘Amakihi ..................................................................................................... 4-37
4.5.3 ‘Apanane..................................................................................................................... 4-39
4.5.4 Hawai‘i ‘Elepaio ......................................................................................................... 4-40
4.5.5 ‘Ōma‘o ........................................................................................................................ 4-42
4.5.6 Pueo ............................................................................................................................ 4-43
4.6 Endangered Hawaiian Waterbirds .................................................................................. 4-44
4.6.1 Nēnē ............................................................................................................................ 4-45
4.6.2 Koloa Maoli ................................................................................................................ 4-46
4.7 Endangered Mammal ........................................................................................................ 4-48
4.7.1 ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a .................................................................................................................. 4-48
4.8 Native Hawaiian Invertebrates ......................................................................................... 4-49
4.8.1 Picture-wing Flies ....................................................................................................... 4-50
4.8.2 Koa Bug ...................................................................................................................... 4-51
4.8.3 Cave Invertebrates ...................................................................................................... 4-52
4.8.4 Arthropods .................................................................................................................. 4-53
4.8.5 Mollusks ..................................................................................................................... 4-60
4.9 Endangered and Threatened Plants ................................................................................. 4-61
4.9.1 Asplenium peruvianum var. insulare .......................................................................... 4-62
4.9.2 Clermontia lindseyana................................................................................................ 4-63
4.9.3 Clermontia peleana .................................................................................................... 4-64
4.9.4 Clermontia pyrularia .................................................................................................. 4-65
4.9.5 Hahā ............................................................................................................................ 4-66
4.9.6 ‘Aku‘aku ..................................................................................................................... 4-66
4.9.7 Cyanea shipmanii ....................................................................................................... 4-67
4.9.8 Cyanea stictophylla .................................................................................................... 4-68
4.9.9 Ha‘iwale ..................................................................................................................... 4-69
4.9.10 ‘Aiea ......................................................................................................................... 4-69
4.9.11 Phyllostegia floribunda ............................................................................................ 4-70
4.9.12 Kīponapona............................................................................................................... 4-71
4.9.13 Phyllostegia velutina ................................................................................................ 4-72
4.9.14 Po‘e ........................................................................................................................... 4-72
4.9.15 ‘Ānunu ...................................................................................................................... 4-73
4.9.16 Silene hawaiiensis .................................................................................................... 4-74
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4.10 Other Native Plants ......................................................................................................... 4-74
4.10.1 Koa ........................................................................................................................... 4-80
4.10.2‘Ōhi‘a .......................................................................................................................... 4-82
4.11 Cave Resources ................................................................................................................ 4-84
4.11.1 Rare Cave Invertebrates ........................................................................................... 4-86
4.12 Invasive Species ................................................................................................................ 4-87
4.12.1 Introduced Forest Birds ............................................................................................ 4-87
4.12.2 Introduced Game Birds ............................................................................................. 4-89
4.12.3 Introduced Mammals ................................................................................................ 4-89
4.12.4 Introduced Reptiles and Amphibians ....................................................................... 4-96
4.12.5 Introduced Arthropods .............................................................................................. 4-98
4.12.6 Introduced Plants .................................................................................................... 4-100
4.12.7 Introduced Mollusks ............................................................................................... 4-114
4.12.8 Biocontrol Insects and Pathogens ........................................................................... 4-114
4.13 References ....................................................................................................................... 4-115
Chapter 5. Social and Economic Factors ....................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 Refuge Infrastructure and Administrative Facilities ....................................................... 5-1
5.1.1 Hakalau Forest Unit ...................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.2 Kona Forest Unit .......................................................................................................... 5-7
5.1.3 Hilo Administrative Office ........................................................................................... 5-7
5.2 Public Use Overview ............................................................................................................ 5-7
5.2.1 Federal, State, and County Recreational Parks............................................................. 5-7
5.2.2 Wildlife Observation and Environmental Education .................................................... 5-8
5.2.3 Camping ..................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.2.4 Hiking ......................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.2.5 Hunting ....................................................................................................................... 5-14
5.2.6 Refuge Visitor Services Opportunities ....................................................................... 5-14
5.2.7 Recreational Trends and Demands ............................................................................. 5-17
5.2.8 Historical/Cultural Sites ............................................................................................. 5-17
5.3 Social and Economic Conditions ...................................................................................... 5-19
5.3.1 Population ................................................................................................................... 5-19
5.3.2 Housing....................................................................................................................... 5-20
5.3.3 Education .................................................................................................................... 5-20
5.3.4 Employment and Income ............................................................................................ 5-21
5.3.5 Economy ..................................................................................................................... 5-22
5.3.6 Refuge Contribution ................................................................................................... 5-24
5.4 Special Designation Areas ................................................................................................. 5-25
5.5 References ............................................................................................................................ 5-25
Chapter 6. Environmental Consequences ...................................................................................... 6-1
6.1 Overview of Effects Analysis .............................................................................................. 6-1
6.1.1 Terminology ................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.1.2 Integrated Pest Management ........................................................................................ 6-2
6.2 Summary of Effects ............................................................................................................. 6-3
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6.3 Effects to the Physical Environment ................................................................................ 6-10
6.3.1 Geology and Soils....................................................................................................... 6-10
6.3.2 Hydrology and Water Quality .................................................................................... 6-11
6.3.3 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 6-12
6.4 Effects to Habitats .............................................................................................................. 6-13
6.4.1 Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a/Uluhe Forest–HFU ................................................................... 6-14
6.4.2 Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a Forest–HFU .............................................................................. 6-14
6.4.3 Montane Mesic Koa Forest–HFU .............................................................................. 6-15
6.4.4 Montane Wet ‘Ōhi‘a Forest–KFU and HFU .............................................................. 6-16
6.4.5 Montane Mesic Koa/‘Ōhi‘a Forest–KFU ................................................................... 6-16
6.4.6 Native Dry Koa/‘Ōhi‘a/Māmane Forest–KFU ........................................................... 6-17
6.4.7 Lava Tube and Skylight Community–KFU ............................................................... 6-18
6.5 Effects to Focal Plant and Wildlife Resources ................................................................ 6-19
6.5.1 Endangered and Native Hawaiian Forest Birds .......................................................... 6-19
6.5.2 Endangered Hawaiian Waterbirds .............................................................................. 6-20
6.5.3 ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a .................................................................................................................. 6-21
6.5.4 Endangered, Rare, and Native Hawaiian Invertebrates .............................................. 6-22
6.5.5 Endangered, Threatened, and Native Plants ............................................................... 6-23
6.6 Effects to Wilderness Resources ....................................................................................... 6-24
6.7 Effects to Cultural/Historical Resources ......................................................................... 6-26
6.8 Effects to Public Use and Access ...................................................................................... 6-27
6.9 Effects to Economic Conditions ........................................................................................ 6-29
6.10 Effects to Social Conditions ............................................................................................ 6-30
6.11 Cumulative Effects ........................................................................................................... 6-30
6.11.1 Climate Change in Hawai‘i ...................................................................................... 6-31
6.11.2 Climate Change Effects on Water Resources ........................................................... 6-32
6.11.3 Ecological Responses to Climate Change ................................................................ 6-33
6.12 References ......................................................................................................................... 6-34
Maps
Map 1 Hakalau Forest NWR Vicinity Map. ..................................................................................... 1-3
Map 2 Hakalau Forest Unit Location Map. ...................................................................................... 1-5
Map 3 Kona Forest Unit Location Map. ........................................................................................... 1-7
Map 6 Hakalau Forest Unit Alternative A. ....................................................................................... 2-9
Map 7 Hakalau Forest Unit Alternative B. ..................................................................................... 2-11
Map 8 Hakalau Forest Unit Alternative C. ..................................................................................... 2-13
Map 9 Kona Forest Unit Alternatives A, B, and C. ........................................................................ 2-15
Map 10 Hakalau Forest Unit Vegetation Type. ................................................................................ 4-7
Map 11 Kona Forest Unit Vegetation Type. ................................................................................... 4-13
Map 12 Annual Forest Bird Survey Transects. ............................................................................... 4-21
Map 13 Hakalau Forest Unit 2007 Weed Survey Map. ................................................................ 4-105
Map 4 Hakalau Forest Unit Administrative Facilities. ..................................................................... 5-3
Map 5 Kona Forest Unit Administrative Facilities. .......................................................................... 5-5
Map 14 Hakalau Forest Unit Wilderness Inventory Units ................................................................ D-3
Map 15 Kona Forest Unit Wilderness Inventory Units .................................................................... D-5
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Tables
Table 2.1 Comparison of management alternatives for Hakalau Forest NWR. .............................. 2-17
Table 3.1 Average monthly rainfall (inches) at the Kona Forest Unit, April 1995-
November 1998. .............................................................................................................. 3-3
Table 3.2 Soil types found within the Hakalau Forest Unit and key characteristics. ....................... 3-6
Table 3.3 Soil types found within the Kona Forest Unit and key characteristics. ............................ 3-8
Table 3.4 Streams and tributaries on the Hakalau Forest Unit. ...................................................... 3-10
Table 4.1 Refuge conservation targets. ............................................................................................. 4-3
Table 4.2 Habitats at the KFU. ....................................................................................................... 4-15
Table 4.3 Endangered and rare native invertebrate species occurring or potentially
occurring on Hakalau Forest NWR. .............................................................................. 4-50
Table 4.4 Endemic arthropods in three cave systems at the KFU. ................................................. 4-53
Table 4.5 Arthropods occurring at the HFU and KFU. .................................................................. 4-57
Table 4.6 Endangered and threatened plant species that occur (or potentially occur)
at Hakalau Forest NWR. ............................................................................................... 4-62
Table 4.7 Native Hawaiian plants found on the units of Hakalau Forest NWR. ............................ 4-75
Table 4.8 Total native seedlings outplanted at the HFU 1987-2007. ............................................. 4-80
Table 4.9 Introduced forest birds present at HFU and KFU. .......................................................... 4-88
Table 4.10 Introduced game birds present at HFU and KFU. ........................................................ 4-89
Table 4.11 List of invasive plant species known to currently occur at Hakalau Forest NWR. .... 4-101
Table 5.1 Map ID and facility name for the vicinity recreation map. ............................................. 5-11
Table 5.2 2007 Visitation at the Hakalau Forest Unit. .................................................................... 5-16
Table 5.3 Population figures for selected areas. ............................................................................. 5-21
Table 5.4 Hawai‘i County industry job counts and average annual wages. ................................... 5-22
Table 6.1 Summary of effects by alternatives on the HFU. .............................................................. 6-3
Table 6.2 Summary of effects by alternatives on the KFU. .............................................................. 6-7
Figures
Figure 3.1 Soil Map of the Hakalau Forest Unit. .............................................................................. 3-5
Figure 3.2 Soil Map of the Kona Forest Unit. .................................................................................. 3-7
Figure 3.3 Land Use District Boundaries – Hakalau Forest Unit. .................................................. 3-15
Figure 3.4 Land Use District Boundaries – Kona Forest Unit. ....................................................... 3-16
Figure 4.1 Native Forest Bird Trends on Hawai‘i Island. ................................................................. 4-2
Figure 4.2 Vegetation Communities at the Kona Forest Unit. ........................................................ 4-11
Figure 4.3 North Hāmākua Study Area. ......................................................................................... 4-18
Figure 4.4 Central Windward Study Area. ..................................................................................... 4-24
Figure 5.1 Hakalau Forest Volunteer Cabin. .................................................................................... 5-1
Figure 5.2 Recreation Opportunities on Hawai‘i Island. .................................................................. 5-9
Appendices
Appendix A. Species Lists for Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge .................................. A-1
Appendix B. Appropriate Uses and Compatibility Determinations ................................................. B-1
Appendix C. Plan Implementation .................................................................................................... C-1
Appendix D. Wilderness Review for Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge ............................. D-1
Appendix E. Forest Bird Workshop Report ...................................................................................... E-1
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Appendix F. Resource Tables ........................................................................................................... F-1
Appendix G. Integrated Pest Management Program ........................................................................ G-1
Appendix H. Statement of Compliance ............................................................................................ H-1
Appendix I. Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................ I-1
Note to Reviewers: Throughout the CCP document, all attempts have been made
to use appropriate diacriticals related to the Native Hawaiian language
(i.e., ‘okina and kahakō). However, places where diacriticals may not appear
occur in the maps, appendices, and references. Due to limitations of the
Geospatial Information System (GIS) software used for the maps developed in
the plan, diacriticals were unable to be used where place names or legend text
appear. For items in the appendices, if documents were minutes or summaries of
meetings or documents not created for the CCP that did not use diacriticals
originally, the document was left as is. For references identified, if the title of the
publication or original citation does not use diacriticals, references were left as is.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment
viii Table of Contents
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
Draft Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment
Chapter 1. Introduction and Background 1-1
Chapter 1. Introduction and Background
1.1 Introduction
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) consists of the Hakalau Forest Unit and the Kona
Forest Unit (Map 1) collectively managed as the Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex
(BINWRC). The Hakalau Forest Unit (HFU) (Map 2) was set aside in 1985 to protect and manage
endangered forest birds and their rainforest habitat. Located on the windward slope of Mauna Kea,
Island of Hawai‘i, the 32,733-ac unit supports a diversity of native birds and plants. The Kona Forest
Unit (KFU) (Map 3) was set aside in 1997 to protect native forest birds and the ‘alalā (Corvus
hawaiiensis, Hawaiian crow). Located on the leeward slope of Mauna Loa, the 5,300-ac KFU
supports diverse native bird and plant species as well as the rare lava tube and lava tube skylight
habitats.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) has prepared this Comprehensive Conservation Plan
and associated Environmental Assessment (CCP/EA) for Hakalau Forest NWR in compliance with
the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended by the National
Wildlife Refuge Improvement Act of 1997 (Administration Act) (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee) and the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321-4347), which mandates
the Service to address “…significant problems that may adversely affect the populations and habitats
of fish, wildlife and plants and the actions necessary to correct or mitigate such problems.” Once an
alternative is selected and approved for implementation by the Service’s Pacific Regional Director,
the CCP will guide resource management on the Refuge for the next 15 years.
1.2 Proposed Action
The Refuge staff has developed and examined alternatives for management of Hakalau Forest NWR
through the CCP process. The various alternatives address the major issues and relevant mandates
identified in the CCP process and are consistent with principles of sound fish and wildlife
management. The Refuge staff has evaluated three alternatives for Hakalau Forest NWR and has
identified Alternative B as the preferred alternative. The draft preferred alternative represents the best
balanced approach for achieving Hakalau Forest NWR purposes, vision, and goals; contributes to the
National Wildlife Refuge System (Refuge System) mission; addresses the relevant issues and
mandates; and is consistent with sound principles of fish and wildlife management. However, the
preferred alternative may be modified between the draft and final document depending upon
comments received from the public or other agencies and organizations. The Service’s Pacific
Regional Director will be the final decisionmaker regarding the alternative that will be adopted for
implementation. For details on the specific components and actions comprising the range of
alternatives, see Chapter 2.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
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1-2 Chapter 1. Introduction and Background
Hakalau Forest Unit
Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park
Mauna Kea
Forest Reserve
11
11
19 190
200
19
P a c i f i c O c e a n
H A W A I I
Mauna Loa
13,677ft
Mauna Kea
13,796ft
Captain Cook Kona Forest Unit
Honokaa
Kau
Forest
Reserve
Hilo
Forest
Reserve
Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park
Laupahoehoe
NAR
Hilo
Kailua-Kona
Waimea
Kalaoa
Kapaau
Waikoloa
Village
155°0'0"W
155°0'0"W
156°0'0"W
156°0'0"W
20°0'0"N
20°0'0"N
19°0'0"N
19°0'0"N
Hakalau Forest
NWR
Kauai
Oahu
Hawaii
Niihau
Maui
Molokai
H A W A I I
0 10 20 Km
0 10 20 Mi Produced by USFWS Region 1
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Hawaii County, Hawaii
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1.3 Purpose and Need for the CCP
The purpose of the proposed CCP is to provide the Refuge System, the Service, partners, and citizens
with a management plan for improving fish and wildlife habitat conditions and infrastructure for
wildlife, staff, and visitors on Hakalau Forest NWR over the next 15 years. An approved CCP will
help ensure that the Service manages Hakalau Forest NWR to achieve Refuge purposes, vision,
goals, and objectives to help fulfill the Refuge System mission.
The purpose of the CCP is to provide reasonable, scientifically grounded guidance for improving the
Refuge’s forest, subterranean, riparian, and wetland habitats, for the long-term conservation of native
plants, animals, and migratory birds. The CCP will identify appropriate actions for protecting and
sustaining the biological and cultural features of forest communities; endangered species populations
and habitats; and threatened, endangered, or rare species. A final purpose of the CCP is to provide
guidance and evaluate priority wildlife dependent recreation programs on the Refuge that may
include hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, environmental education, and
interpretation.
The CCP is needed for a variety of reasons. Primary among these is the need to conserve the
Refuge’s forest, subterranean, riparian, and wetland habitats that are in various stages of
(1) degradation by pest plants and animals (most notably feral ungulates and invasive plants),
(2) recovery from cattle grazing activities by past owners, and (3) restoration by Refuge staff. The
CCP is needed to address Hakalau Forest NWR’s contributions to aid in the recovery of listed
species, and assess and possibly mitigate potential impacts of global climate change. There is also a
need to effectively work with current partners such as the Hawai‘i Division of Forestry and Wildlife
(DOFAW), the U.S. Geological Survey-Biological Resources Discipline (USGS-BRD), the U.S.
Forest Service (USFS), the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL), and the National Park
Service (NPS). The Refuge also needs to seek new partnerships to restore habitats and improve the
volunteer program. There is a need to evaluate the existing visitor service program to determine
which wildlife-dependent public uses are compatible and to what extent improvements or alterations
should be made to existing programs. In addition, the Refuge will continue to work with the Friends
of Hakalau Forest for various Refuge programs, community outreach, and Refuge management
needs. These activities will allow the Refuge staff to ensure the biological integrity, diversity, and
environmental health of the units are restored or maintained.
1.4 Content and Scope of the Plan
This CCP provides guidance for management of Refuge habitats and wildlife, and administration of
public uses on Refuge lands. The Hakalau Forest NWR CCP/EA is intended to comply with the
requirements set forth in the Administration Act and NEPA. Information in the CCP includes:
• An overall vision for the Refuge, each unit’s establishment history and purposes, and their role in
the local ecosystem (Chapter 1);
• Goals and objectives for specific conservation targets and visitor programs, as well as strategies
for achieving the objectives (Chapter 2);
• A description of the physical environment of the Refuge (Chapter 3);
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• A description of the conservation targets, their condition and trends on the Refuge and within the
local ecosystem, a presentation of the key desired ecological conditions for sustaining the targets,
and a short analysis of the threats to each conservation target (Chapter 4);
• An overview of the Refuge’s visitor programs and facilities, a list of desired future conditions for
each program, and other management considerations (Chapter 5);
• An analysis of the environmental effects associated with implementing the various management
actions prescribed under the alternatives described in Chapter 2 (Chapter 6);
• A list of resident species (both native and nonnative) known for the Refuge (Appendix A);
• Evaluations of existing and proposed appropriate public and economic uses for compatibility
with the Refuge’s purposes (Appendix B);
• An outline of the projects and staff needed to support the alternatives considered (Appendix C);
• An review for wilderness designation (Appendix D);
• Summary of a workshop held for implementing recovery for endangered forest birds
(Appendix E);
• A resources table (Appendix F);
• Integrated Pest Management Program (Appendix G);
• Statement of Compliance for CCP (Appendix H); and
• List of acronyms (Appendix I).
1.5 Planning and Management Guidance
1.5.1 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mission
The mission of the Service is “working with others, to conserve, protect and enhance fish and
wildlife and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people.” National natural
resources entrusted to the Service for conservation and protection include migratory birds,
endangered and threatened species, interjurisdictional fish, wetlands, and certain marine mammals.
The Service also manages national fish hatcheries, enforces Federal wildlife laws and international
treaties on importing and exporting wildlife, assists with State/Territorial fish and wildlife programs,
and helps other countries develop wildlife conservation programs. The Service is an agency within
the Department of the Interior (DOI), and is the principal Federal agency responsible for conserving,
protecting and enhancing fish, wildlife and plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the
American people.
1.5.2 National Wildlife Refuge System
The Refuge System is the world’s largest network of public lands and waters set aside specifically
for conserving wildlife and protecting ecosystems. From its inception in 1903, the Refuge System
has grown to encompass 552 national wildlife refuges in all 50 States, 4 U.S. territories and a number
of unincorporated U.S. possessions, and waterfowl production areas in 10 States, covering more than
150 million ac of public lands. It also manages four marine national monuments in the Pacific in
coordination with NOAA and affected States/Territories. More than 40 million visitors annually fish,
hunt, observe and photograph wildlife, or participate in environmental education and interpretive
activities on these NWRs.
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Refuges are guided by various Federal laws and executive orders, Service policies, and international
treaties. Fundamental are the mission and goals of the Refuge System and the designated purposes of
the Refuge unit as described in establishing legislation, executive orders, or other documents
establishing, authorizing, or expanding a refuge.
Key concepts and guidance for the Refuge System derive from the National Wildlife Refuge System
Administration Act, the Refuge Recreation Act of 1962 (16 U.S.C. 460k-460k-4), as amended, Title
50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, and the Fish and Wildlife Service Manual. The
Administration Act is implemented through regulations covering the Refuge System, published in
Title 50, subchapter C of the Code of Federal Regulations. These regulations govern general
administration of units of the Refuge System.
1.5.3 National Wildlife Refuge System Mission and Goals
The mission of the Refuge System is:
“to administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, management, and where
appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats within the United
States for the benefit of present and future generations of Americans” (National Wildlife Refuge
System Administration Act of 1966, as amended)(16 U.S.C. 668dd).
Wildlife conservation is the fundamental mission of the Refuge System. The goals of the Refuge
System, as articulated in the Mission, Goals, and Refuge Purposes Policy (601 FW1) are:
• Conserve a diversity of fish, wildlife, and plants and their habitats, including species that are
endangered or threatened with becoming endangered;
• Develop and maintain a network of habitats for migratory birds, anadromous and
interjurisdictional fish, and marine mammal populations that is strategically distributed and
carefully managed to meet important life history needs of these species across their ranges;
• Conserve those ecosystems, plant communities, wetlands of national or international significance
and landscapes and seascapes that are unique, rare, declining, or underrepresented in existing
protection efforts;
• Provide and enhance opportunities to participate in compatible wildlife-dependent recreation
(hunting, fishing, wildlife observation and photography, and environmental education and
interpretation); and
• Foster understanding and instill appreciation of the diversity and interconnectedness of fish,
wildlife, and plants and their habitats.
1.5.4 National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act
Of all the laws governing activities on refuges, the Administration Act exerts the greatest influence.
The National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (Improvement Act) amended the
Administration Act by including a unifying mission for all refuges as a system, a new process for
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determining compatible uses on refuges, and a requirement that each refuge will be managed under a
CCP developed in an open public process.
The Administration Act states the Secretary of the Interior shall provide for the conservation of fish,
wildlife and plants, and their habitats within the Refuge System as well as ensure that the biological
integrity, diversity, and environmental health of the Refuge System are maintained. House
Report 105–106 accompanying the Improvement Act states ‘‘… the fundamental mission of our
System is wildlife conservation: wildlife and wildlife conservation must come first.’’ Biological
integrity, diversity, and environmental health (BIDEH) are critical components of wildlife
conservation. As later made clear in the BIDEH Policy, “the highest measure of biological integrity,
diversity, and environmental health is viewed as those intact and self-sustaining habitats and wildlife
populations that existed during historic conditions.”
Under the Administration Act, each refuge must be managed to fulfill the Refuge System mission as
well as the specific purposes for which it was established. The Administration Act requires the
Service to monitor the status and trends of fish, wildlife, and plants in each refuge.
Additionally, the Administration Act identifies six wildlife-dependent recreational uses for priority
consideration. These uses are hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, wildlife photography,
environmental education and environmental interpretation. Under the Administration Act, the Refuge
is to grant these six wildlife-dependent public uses special consideration in the planning for,
management of, and establishment and expansion of units of the Refuge System. The overarching
goal is to enhance wildlife-dependent recreation opportunities and access to quality visitor
experiences on refuges while managing refuges to conserve fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats.
New and ongoing recreational uses should help visitors focus on wildlife and other natural resources.
These uses should provide an opportunity to make visitors aware of resource issues, management
plans, and how the refuge contributes to the Refuge System and the Service mission. To be given
priority status, these uses must be found to not materially interfere with or detract from the purposes
for which the refuge was established. The Refuge is then directed to make extra effort to facilitate
priority wildlife-dependent visitor opportunities.
When preparing a CCP, refuge managers must re-evaluate all general public, recreational, and
economic uses (even those occurring to further refuge habitat management goals) proposed or
occurring on a refuge for appropriateness and compatibility. No refuge use may be allowed or
continued unless it is determined to be appropriate and compatible. Generally, an appropriate use is
one that contributes to fulfilling the refuge purpose(s), the Refuge System mission, or goals or
objectives described in a refuge management plan, such as this CCP. A compatible use is a use that,
in the sound professional judgment of the refuge manager, will not materially interfere with or
detract from the fulfillment of the mission of the Refuge System or the purposes of the refuge.
Updated Appropriateness Findings and Compatibility Determinations for existing and proposed uses
for Hakalau Forest NWR are in Appendix B of this Draft CCP.
The Administration Act also requires that, in addition to formally established guidance, the CCP
must be developed with the participation of the public. Issues and concerns articulated by the public
play a role in guiding alternatives considered during the development of the CCP, and together with
the formal guidance, can play a role in selection of the preferred alternative. It is the Service’s policy
that CCPs be developed in an open public process and that the agency is committed to securing
public input throughout the process.
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1.6 Relationship to Previous and Future Refuge Plans
Planning has been a part of refuge operations since establishing refuges began. However, not all
plans were completed in a comprehensive fashion, or with public participation considered adequate
today. For Hakalau Forest NWR, a considerable number of plans were completed over the years to
guide managers.
1.6.1 Previous Plans
Plans and/or management agreements (plans addressing one program or resource) have been
developed for Hakalau Forest NWR (Hakalau Forest Unit and Kona Forest Unit). Existing plans
include:
• Refuge Management Plan (1989);
• Feral Ungulate Management Plan (1996);
• Draft Reforestation Management Plan (May 1996);
• Wildland Fire Management Plan-Hakalau (2002);
• Wildland Fire Management Plan-Kona (2002);
• Occupant Emergency Plan (2003);
• Annual Habitat Work Plan (2004)
• Visitor Services Evaluation Report (2004)
• Safety Plan, Hakalau Forest Unit (April 2004)
• Aviation Mishap Response Plan (2005)
• Continuity of Operations Plan (2009)
• Fleet Management Plan (2009)
• USFWS Pandemic Influenza Plan (2009); and
• Medical Emergency Dispatch Plan (2009).
1.6.2 Future Planning
The CCP will be revised every 15 years or earlier if monitoring and evaluation determine that
changes are needed to achieve refuge purposes, vision, goals, or objectives or environmental or other
conditions significantly change. The CCP provides guidance in the form of goals, objectives, and
strategies for refuge program areas but may lack some of the specifics needed for implementation.
Stepdown management plans will therefore be developed for individual program areas, as needed,
following completion of the CCP. Stepdown plans require appropriate NEPA compliance. Several
stepdown plans (e.g., Habitat Management Plan, Inventory and Monitoring Plan, and Integrated Pest
Management Plan) are appropriate to develop and/or update following the CCP completion; all of
these will be founded on the management goals, objectives, and strategies outlined in the CCP. The
Integrated Pest Management Plan (IPM) should address coordination with all other Federal, State,
and regional agencies as well as neighboring private landowners in order to effectively combat the
spread of invasive species.
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1.6.3 Relationship to Ecosystem Planning Efforts
Hawai‘i’s Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (Mitchell, C., et al., 2005)
Hawai‘i’s Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS) (now known as Hawai‘i’s
Wildlife Action Plan) presents strategies for long-term conservation of the full range of the State’s
native terrestrial and aquatic species, over 10,000 of which are found nowhere else on earth, and their
habitats. The reason for developing a CWCS is to continue participation in the State Wildlife Grant
(SWG) program administered by the Service. The Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural
Resources (DLNR) took the lead in preparing the CWCS and went beyond simply meeting mandated
requirements by making the CWCS a useful document to guide conservation efforts across the State.
The CWCS builds on and synthesizes information gathered from existing conservation partnerships
and cooperative efforts, such that the development of this Strategy is based on collaboration with
other local, State, and Federal agencies, nongovernmental organizations, private landowners, and
interested citizens.
Recognizing the effectiveness of taking conservation actions at a habitat level in addition to a
species-specific level, the CWCS emphasizes threats to species and their habitats and conservation
needs at three levels: Statewide, islandwide, and taxa-specific. The CWCS presents an overview of
Hawai‘i’s unique species and their habitats, identifies the major threats to the long-term conservation
of these species and habitats, and presents seven conservation objectives to address these threats.
Under each objective, strategies of highest priority are labeled; however, because conservation needs
in Hawai‘i far exceed the resources available, implementation of any of the identified strategies will
benefit native wildlife and habitats.
Hawai‘i’s Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN) include the native terrestrial bat, all
endemic aquatic animals, additional indigenous aquatic animals identified as in need of conservation
attention, a range of native plants identified as in need of conservation attention, and all identified
endemic algae. The SGCN includes: terrestrial mammal (1), birds (77), terrestrial invertebrates
(approximately 5,000), freshwater fishes (5), freshwater invertebrates (12), anchialine pond-associated
fauna (20), marine mammals (26), marine reptiles (6), marine fishes (154), marine
invertebrates (197), and flora (over 600).
The major threats facing Hawai‘i’s native wildlife are common to most species groups and habitats
and include:
• Loss and degradation of habitat resulting from human development, alteration of hydrology,
wildfire, invasive species, recreational overuse, natural disaster, and climate change;
• Introduced invasive species (e.g., habitat modifiers, including weeds, ungulates, algae and corals,
predators, competitors, disease carriers, and disease);
• Limited information and insufficient information management;
• Uneven compliance with existing conservation laws, rules, and regulations;
• Overharvesting and excessive extractive use;
• Management constraints; and
• Inadequate funding to implement needed conservation actions.
To address these threats, the CWCS identifies multiple strategies to implement the following seven
priority conservation objectives for the State:
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1. Maintain, protect, manage, and restore native species and habitats in sufficient quantity and
quality to allow native species to thrive;
2. Combat invasive species through a three-tiered approach combining prevention and interdiction,
early detection and rapid response, and ongoing control or eradication;
3. Develop and implement programs to obtain, manage, and disseminate information needed to
guide conservation management and recovery programs;
4. Strengthen existing and create new partnerships and cooperative efforts;
5. Expand and strengthen outreach and education to improve understanding of our native wildlife
resources among the people of Hawai‘i;
6. Support policy changes aimed at improving and protecting native species and habitats; and
7. Enhance funding opportunities to implement needed conservation actions.
The Hakalau Forest NWR CCP includes strategies that address these priority conservation objectives.
In particular, objectives 1, 2, 4, and 5 are key components of Refuge management programs.
Landscape Level Initiatives
Strategic Habitat Conservation (SHC): Through a cooperative effort culminating in the 2006
National Ecological Assessment Team Report, the Service and USGS outlined a unifying adaptive
resource management approach for conservation at “landscape” scales, the entire range of a priority
species or suite of species. Known as “strategic habitat conservation” or SHC, it is a way of thinking
and of doing business that requires us to set biological goals for priority species populations, allows
us to make strategic decisions about our work, and encourages us to constantly reassess and improve
our actions – all critical steps in dealing with large-scale conservation challenges and the uncertainty
of accelerated climate change.
In April 2009, Service leadership set up a national geographic framework for implementing
landscape conservation. This framework has led to the creation of Landscape Conservation
Cooperatives (LCCs). The LCCs are conservation-science partnerships between the Service, Federal
agencies, States, Territories, tribes, NGOs, universities, and other entities. They are fundamental
units of planning and science capacity to help us carry out the functional elements of SHC, biological
planning, conservation design, conservation delivery, monitoring, and research, and inform our
strategic response to accelerated climate change.
Pacific Islands Climate Change Cooperative (PICCC): The Pacific Islands Climate Change
Cooperative (PICCC) is the LCC focused on Hawai‘i, the Mariana Islands, and American Samoa.
Established in late 2009, it will create the technical capacity, decision support tools, and
organizational structure to address landscape-scale conservation issues using SHC. These tools will
help managers reach explicit conservation objectives for native species and habitats in the face of
climate change and ongoing threats such as fire, land conversion, and invasive species. Under the
direction of a steering committee which includes Service representatives, the PICCC will develop
models that predict how natural resources and processes may respond to climate change, assess
management options using models and historical data, and collectively determine priority
conservation strategies. To make the link between modeling and management, the PICCC will assess
the vulnerability of targeted species and ecosystems, and assist partners in choosing among potential
management strategies based on their likelihood for success. Monitoring of response variables and
ecosystem change will be coordinated across agencies and jurisdictions, and will include the
structures provided by the Refuge System's Inventory and Monitoring program.
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The Hawaiian and Pacific Islands NWRs anticipate using climate change information provided by
the PICCC as foundational products from which to do more detailed site-specific and species-specific
analyses critical to the preparation of planning documents and to prioritize on-the-ground
conservation actions. Although the information developed by PICCC will be focused on priority
species and habitats determined by the partnership and may not be specifically targeting all of the
Service climate science needs, it is hoped that it will provide much of the basic scientific information
needed to design and deliver climate-informed conservation actions.
Watershed Partnerships
The Hawai‘i Association of Watershed Partnerships (HAWP) was established in 2003. HAWP
includes nine island-based Watershed Partnerships, including more than 60 public and private
partners on six islands. Over 1.2 million ac of forest lands are covered by existing plans. The
partnerships consist of public and private landowners and other partners working in voluntary
collaboration to protect forested watersheds and preserve ecosystem services.
HAWP works to facilitate sharing of watershed management knowledge, build public support and
awareness of watershed values, and develop sustainable funding sources for the partnerships.
Forested watersheds are vital recharge regions for Hawai‘i’s underground aquifers and a dependable
source of clean water for its streams and people. They are also home to the last remaining native
ecosystems in Hawai‘i and house thousands of native species of animals and plants found nowhere
else on Earth. Most management actions are habitat based and revolve around combating the main
threats of feral ungulates (hoofed animals such as goats, deer, sheep, pigs, etc.) and invasive species.
Partnership activities include fencing and ungulate removal, invasive species control, rare plant
outplanting and native habitat restoration, and outreach and education. These management actions
make a critical difference by benefitting native forests, watersheds, coastal, and coral reef areas by
reducing erosion and sedimentation runoff into streams.
On the Island of Hawai‘i, there are presently two Watershed Partnerships in the vicinity of Refuge
System lands. The Big Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex (BINWRC) participates in both of
these groups.
Three Mountain Alliance: The largest Watershed Partnership in the islands, the Three Mountain
Alliance (originally known as the ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership), was formed in 2007 and covers
1,116,300 ac. With nine partners, the overall goal of the Three Mountain Alliance (TMA) is to
sustain the multiple ecosystem benefits of the three mountains of Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualālai
by responsibly managing its watershed areas, native habitats and species, historical, cultural, and
socioeconomic resources for all who benefit from the continued health of these three mountains.
The TMA was formed when members of the ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership (OKP), based on their
10 year success of partnering, decided to enlarge watershed protection and management to over
1 million ac across Mauna Loa, Kīlauea, and Hualālai as part of an expanded Partnership. Members
have agreed there is a compelling need to collaborate on a wide variety of land management issues in
forested watersheds across this TMA landscape. Coordinated management across this landscape is
critical to sustain adequate quality and quantity of water and to provide important habitat for a wide
diversity of native plants and animals, including endangered species. In addition, the health of these
lands is strongly connected with the quality of life for people and local communities. Even in the
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absence of a formal partnership, private and public landowners in this region have recognized the
value of collaboration to address shared management challenges such as invasive weeds, fire, and
feral cattle.
The OKP has been highly successful in addressing conservation challenges within a 30,000 ac area,
centered on the ��Ōla‘a Tract of Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. The OKP includes the State
(DLNR, Department of Public Safety), National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S.
Geological Survey Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, Kamehameha Schools, U.S.
Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service, and The Nature Conservancy.
Cooperating in the areas of staff expertise and funding to conserve native ecosystems for over a
decade has significantly reduced the threats of invasive ungulates and weeds on area Federal, State,
and private lands.
The TMA includes the original State, Federal, and private partners of the OKP, as well as the U.S.
Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service. Other agencies and key
private landowners with a management interest in the landscape issues will be invited to join the
TMA to participate in collaborative efforts addressing specific management challenges.
A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) outlines the following overall principles that serve as the
foundation of the TMA:
• The three mountains of Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualālai are ancient, sacred to Hawaiians, and
critically important to the life, health, and well being of the native ecosystems and human
communities that inhabit them;
• TMA members have a responsibility (kuleana) to care for these mountains, including native
ecosystems and human communities that share this landscape;
• Management is needed to maintain healthy forested watersheds on the slopes of Kīlauea, Mauna
Loa, and Hualālai to sustain the future quality and quantity of fresh water;
• Other lands (e.g., younger lava flows, grasslands, crop land and coastal lands) within the TMA
area also contribute to water quality and quantity;
• The health of the near shore ocean resources are intimately connected to the health of the uplands
in the traditional ahupua‘a;
• Management of these lands would benefit Hawai‘i’s native flora and fauna;
• Many of the threats to the watershed, such as ungulates, fire, insects, diseases, and invasive
nonnative plants, occur across common land ownership boundaries; and
• Effective management is best achieved through the coordinated actions of all major landowners
in the TMA area irrespective of property lines.
Approximately 85 percent of the total TMA land area is comprised of native ecosystems. The TMA
contains some of the largest expanses of intact native forest remaining in the Hawaiian Islands
(approximately 50 percent of the State’s remaining native habitat). Due to the variations in elevation,
climate, and vegetation, the TMA is home to thousands of native species, as well as rare and
threatened or endangered species (many of which are endemic to the island).
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Management programs address habitat protection and restoration, watershed protection, compatible
economic use, compatible recreation and ecotourism, education, awareness and public outreach,
cultural resource protection and research, and monitoring and management program indicators.
Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance: The Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance (MKWA) encompasses
over 525,000 ac or over 820 mi2 above the 2,000 ft elevation on the windward slopes of Mauna Kea,
Hawai‘i Island’s tallest mountain. Members of this newly formed collaboration include the Hawai‘i
DLNR, by and through its Division of Forestry and Wildlife and its Land Management Division,
Kamehameha Schools, Parker Ranch, U.S. Army (Pōhakuloa Training Area), the Service, DHHL,
University of Hawai‘i (Office of Mauna Kea Management), and Kūka‘iau Ranch. A draft
management plan for the watershed was completed in 2010.
The vision of the MKWA is to protect and enhance watershed ecosystems, biodiversity, and
resources through responsible management, while promoting economic sustainability and providing
recreational, subsistence, educational, and research opportunities. The MKWA will identify
Watershed Areas of importance on Mauna Kea that include lands owned or controlled by one or
more of the members for which coordinated care and management would be suitable; and where
appropriate, with the consent of the members owning or controlling lands within the Watershed Area,
cooperate in the development and implementation of watershed management plans that will
document resource values and identify priority watershed management objectives and strategies.
Department of Hawaiian Home Lands ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program: The DHHL owns and
manages the Humu‘ula/Pi‘ihonua area adjacent to the HFU. The DHHL recently completed a
planning process and management plan for these lands in 2009. The mission of the ‘Āina Mauna
Legacy Program (the Legacy Program) and its implementation is to protect approximately 56,000 ac
of native Hawaiian forest that is ecologically, culturally, and economically self-sustaining for the
Hawaiian Home Lands Trust, its beneficiaries and the community.
Initial goals for the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program include:
Goal 1: Develop an economically self-sustaining improvement and preservation program for the
natural and cultural resources (invasive species eradication and native ecosystem restoration) and
implementation strategy.
The focus of the ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program shall be on:
• Restoration and enhancement of DHHL trust resources;
• Identification of immediate and future opportunities for DHHL beneficiaries;
• Removal of invasive species – gorse, etc.;
• Conserve natural and cultural resources and endangered species;
• Address reforestation and restoration of the ecosystem;
• Develop revenue generation, reinvestment in land to sustain activities;
• Provide educational and cultural opportunities;
• Identify and secure partners to sustain activities;
• Identify opportunities for alternative/renewable energy projects; and
• Be a lead and/or model for others to engage in ecosystem restoration in a culturally sensitive
manner based on partnerships to develop a self-sustaining model.
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Goal 2: Develop an outreach program to gain interest, participation, and support from the Hawaiian
Homes Commission, DHHL staff, beneficiaries groups, cultural practitioners, natural resource
scientists, and the broader community for the Legacy Program and its implementation.
The goals and actions of the Legacy Program mesh very well with the vision, goals, and objectives of
the Hakalau Forest NWR CCP. Specifically, the removal of invasive species, conservation of natural
and cultural resources and endangered species, and reforestation and restoration, along with
partnership opportunities, are all key components of this plan. We look forward to the exchange of
ideas, resources, and technical assistance that coordination with this important adjacent landowner
can provide.
Land Protection
National Wildlife Refuges may serve as important strategic anchor points for area conservation
efforts. With the completion of the CCP, the Refuge staff will initiate and complete a Land
Protection Planning effort in cooperation with other agencies and interested parties to assess and
identify land conservation priorities and opportunities in the vicinity of Refuge units. The Refuge
staff will expand coordination efforts with existing partners on both the windward Mauna Kea
(Hakalau Forest Unit) and the South Kona (Kona Forest Unit) sides of the Hawai‘i Island to seek
input on potential Refuge involvement in area conservation efforts and needs beyond our current
boundaries in order to determine a desired goal and appropriate role for the Refuge. Potential
additions or expansion of Hakalau Forest NWR and examination of various land protection tools will
be explored. Land protection as part of the Refuge System may include fee title acquisition,
conservation easements, and cooperative agreements.
Currently, Hakalau Forest NWR managers identify parcels on a case-by-case basis for protection as
they become available from willing sellers. A landscape approach on the slopes of Mauna Kea will
allow staff to focus efforts and work with partners to ensure that habitat needs are met over a larger
area. In addition, corridors between patches of protected habitat are critical for species migration in
response to climate change. Species distribution and abundance is likely to change based upon
precipitation patterns, temperature variations, and shifts in mosquito zones. The Refuge will take a
landscape level view of opportunities to augment the habitat protection currently provided by the
existing Refuge lands.
1.6.4 Threatened and Endangered Species Recovery Plans
Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds (USFWS 2006)
The Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds applies to 21 species. It identifies 4 species that are
found on Hakalau Forest NWR (Hakalau Forest and Kona Forest Units). The overall recovery plan
efforts are outlined here followed by specific recommendations for the individual species. The
individual species sections focus only on Recovery Strategies, as life history and habitat
requirements are covered in Chapter 4.
Threats: The primary threats to Hawaiian forest birds are habitat loss and degradation due to
agriculture, urbanization, cattle grazing, browsing by ungulate species, timber harvesting, and
invasion of nonnative plant species into native-dominated plant communities; predation by alien
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mammals; and diseases carried by alien mosquitoes. The periodic dieback of native plant species due
to natural or alien-species-induced processes is a threat in some areas. The majority of recovery
actions therefore address threats to habitat, disease, and predation. The direct overutilization of
Hawaiian forest birds for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; and the
inadequacies of existing regulatory mechanisms are not considered significant current threats.
Several Hawaiian forest birds now occur in such low numbers and in such restricted ranges that they
are threatened by natural processes, such as inbreeding depression and demographic stochasticity,
and by natural and manmade factors such as hurricanes, wildfires, and periodic vegetation dieback.
Impacts of alien birds are not well understood, but include aggressive behavior toward native bird
species; possible competition for food, nest sites, and roosting sites; and possibly supporting elevated
predator population levels.
Recovery Objectives: The primary recovery objectives for each species (taxon) are to:
1. Restore populations to levels that allow the taxon to persist despite demographic and
environmental stochasticity and that are large enough to allow natural demographic and
evolutionary processes to occur;
2. Protect enough habitat to support these population levels; and
3. Identify and remove the threats responsible for its decline.
Recovery Criteria: Recovery criteria were developed for each taxon to guide recovery efforts and
ensure that all their recovery needs are addressed. The criteria are similar for all species because they
face similar threats and many of them occur in the same geographic areas, but the first criterion in
particular was adapted for each species and reflects the unique characteristics of the ecology,
conservation needs, and current and historical distribution of each species.
A taxon may be downlisted from endangered to threatened when all four of the following criteria
have been met, as well as any species-specific criteria listed in Table 6 (Section III, Recovery
Criteria):
(1) The species occurs in two or more viable populations or a viable metapopulation that represent
the ecological, morphological, behavioral, and genetic diversity of the species;
(2) Viability of the populations is demonstrated through either a) quantitative surveys show that the
number of individuals in each isolated population or in the metapopulation has been stable or
increasing for 15 consecutive years, or b) demographic monitoring shows that each population or
the metapopulation exhibits an average growth rate (lambda, λ) not less than 1.0 over a period of
at least 15 consecutive years; and total population size is not expected to decline by more than 20
percent within the next 15 consecutive years for any reason;
(3) Sufficient habitat in recovery areas is protected and managed to achieve criteria 1 and 2 above;
and
(4) The threats that were responsible for the decline of the species have been identified and
controlled.
A taxon may be delisted when all four of the criteria above have been met for a 30-year period.
‘Ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea): The ‘ō‘ū is currently one of the rarest birds in Hawa‘i, and may
possibly be extinct, although past survey efforts have been insufficient to determine its status
(Reynolds and Snetsinger 2001). The most recent observations indicate any remaining populations
are extremely localized in occurrence, and are restricted to only a fraction of their former range in the
midelevation ‘ōhi‘a forest on the islands of Kaua‘i and Hawai‘i only.
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No conservation efforts have been initiated specifically targeting ‘ō‘ū, but several research projects
and Federal and State land management programs aimed at removing limiting factors for endangered
birds and plants have been undertaken since 1985, and these provide some benefits to ‘ō‘ū. On
Hawai‘i Island, large tracts of State and federally owned land are being intensively managed for
habitat restoration. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Hakalau Forest NWR, Pu‘u Maka‘ala Natural
Area Reserve, and the ‘Ōla‘a-Kīlauea Partnership area have been known to harbor ‘ō‘ū in the past
25 years, and each area currently has management programs aimed at removing ungulates to restore
native forest habitat and ongoing research into eliminating other threats.
‘Akiapōlā‘au (Hemignathus munroi): Four categories of recovery strategies have been identified;
research, recovery areas, predator control, and captive propagation/reintroduction. For research,
studies are identified as necessary in four main areas: (1) testing of survey methodology, followed by
surveying and mapping of all populations and long-term monitoring; (2) demographic studies to
measure life history parameters such as population structure, dispersion, dispersal, adult survivorship,
clutch size, nesting success, social system, and phenology of nesting and molting; (3) habitat
selection and foraging ecology, including diet and food availability, particularly in regenerating
forest, as well as the role that koa silviculture practices play in the creation of suitable habitat; and
(4) response of ‘akiapōlā‘au populations to control of mammalian predators, particularly in low-stature
dry forests where the species has difficulty maintaining itself.
For recovery areas, the most important component of the recovery strategy for the ‘akiapōlā‘au is
protection, management, and restoration of koa/‘ōhi‘a forests above 4,400 ft elevation. Fencing
and/or removal of ungulates from the remaining high elevation forests will protect these areas and
allow natural regeneration. Predator control is identified as an effective method of increasing
reproduction and survival in other Hawaiian forest birds (VanderWerf and Smith 2002). However,
the degree of threat from alien rodents may vary among species and locations, and rodent control
programs initially should be conducted in an experimental way to document their effect on
‘akiapōlā‘au populations.
Finally, captive propagation and reintroduction can augment natural recovery of ‘akiapōlā‘au and
reestablishment of wild populations in portions of the former range. Captive propagation techniques
such as collection of eggs from the wild, artificial incubation and hand-rearing, captive-breeding, and
reintroduction may be required to speed recovery. Feasibility should be determined for reintroducing
‘akiapōlā‘au into now protected areas of its former range, particularly at the Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a Forest
Bird Sanctuary, the KFU of the Hakalau Forest NWR, Mauna Loa Strip of Hawai‘i Volcanoes
National Park, and, if it is managed as planned, the upper forests of Kīpāhoehoe Natural Area
Reserve.
Hawai‘i creeper (Oreomystis mana): The primary strategy for the recovery of the Hawai‘i creeper is
the protection and management of remaining koa /‘ōhi‘a forests above 4,900 ft elevation, and the
restoration of degraded forests. Because the population is relatively large and the threat of extinction
is not imminent, recovery may be achieved more cost effectively through habitat management,
therefore captive propagation currently is of lower priority for this species.
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus): The following four strategies have been identified for
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa; (1) habitat protection and nest site management, (2) disease resistance, (3) predator
control, and (4) captive propagation. The recovery plan identifies the most important component of
the recovery strategy for the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa as habitat protection and nest site management. This
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includes protection of old-growth forest ecosystems, the use of artificial cavities to enable existing
populations to hold their own despite loss of nest-site trees, and research to address factors that affect
the growth form of regenerating ‘ōhi‘a.
Next, management of disease is identified as a major recovery strategy. Since eradication of
mosquitoes is not practical with methods currently available, the birds themselves may be the best
way of addressing the threat from disease. If individuals are discovered that tolerate disease, then
genetic techniques can determine if those genotypes are present outside the range of disease. If those
genotypes are not present outside the range, then an appropriate management strategy would be to
move birds with pertinent genotypes into populations of birds that are not tolerant.
Third, predator control, especially rats, has been shown to be an effective method of increasing
reproduction and survival in other Hawaiian forest birds (VanderWerf and Smith 2002). However,
the degree of threat from alien rodents may vary among species and locations, and rodent control
programs initially should be conducted in an experimental way to document their effect on ‘ākepa
populations.
Finally captive propagation is not considered essential for recovery at this time. However, it is
anticipated that the Hawai‘i ‘ākepa will breed in captivity when they reach reproductive age. Progeny
from such captive propagation efforts would provide birds for reintroduction in order to establish and
enhance wild populations.
Since native forest birds are a Refuge Purpose species, many of the CCP goals, objectives, and
strategies tie directly to forest bird recovery. Native forest restoration, including plant and animal
species that are components of the forest, is the key component of this CCP and future management
at Hakalau Forest NWR.
Recovery Plan for the ‘Ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus, Hawaiian Hoary Bat)
(USFWS 1998)
The ‘ōpe‘ape‘a is the only native land mammal in the Hawaiian Islands. Research is the key to
reaching the ultimate goal of delisting the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, because currently available information is so
limited that even the most basic management actions cannot be undertaken with the certainty that
such actions will benefit the subspecies. The initial focus for developing standardized survey and
monitoring techniques and collecting basic life history information will be on ‘ōpe‘ape‘a populations
on the Island of Hawai‘i, which apparently has the largest population of ‘ōpe‘ape‘a. Completion of
research tasks will not only establish the distribution and abundance of ‘ōpe‘ape‘a, but will also
provide information on specific roosting habitat associations and food habits.
With basic information on the location of ‘ōpe‘ape‘a and their resource needs, threats can then be
identified and managed. Management actions that may be needed to address threats include
protection of key roosting and foraging areas, particularly if ‘ōpe‘ape‘a or their food resources
depend on native vegetation. Predation, the potential impacts of pesticides to bats or their food
resources, and other threats may also need to be addressed.
Refuge staff are interested in helping to learn more about the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a to assist in developing
conservation strategies that could be incorporated into management actions at Hakalau Forest NWR.
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Recovery Plan for the Big Island Plant Cluster (I & II) (USFWS 1996, 1998)
The recovery plan and addendum for plants that are found on Hawai‘i Island include 13 species that
are or have been found on one or both of the units of Hakalau Forest NWR. For the purposes of this
review, we have grouped the endangered plants according to recovery actions. This allows Refuge
staff to review recovery actions to determine the greatest conservation benefit that Refuge habitat
management actions can have on various species.
Recovery Action: Current populations of this species should be protected from ungulates wherever
possible, and their habitat managed for deterrence of nonnative plant invasions. Propagation and
outplanting efforts should be encouraged and continued.
Species: Clermontia lindseyana, Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii, Portulaca sclerocarpa
Recovery Action: In order to prevent possible extinction of this taxon, maintenance of ex situ genetic
stock is necessary. The known plants should be protected from ungulates, particularly pigs, via
fencing or other means. Propagation and outplanting of ex situ stock will likely be needed in order to
establish a sufficient number of plants for recovery within each location and an additional location
will need to be established.
Species: Clermontia peleana, Clermontia pyrularia, Cyanea shipmanii
Recovery Action: In order to prevent possible extinction of this taxon, maintenance of ex situ genetic
stock is necessary. The known plants should be protected from ungulates, particularly pigs, via
fencing or other means. Propagation and outplanting of ex situ stock will likely be needed in order to
establish a sufficient number of plants for recovery within each location and an additional two
locations will need to be established.
Species: Cyanea stictophylla
Recovery Action: In order to prevent possible extinction of this taxon, maintenance of ex situ genetic
stock is necessary. The known plants should be protected from ungulates, particularly pigs, via
fencing or other means. Propagation and outplanting of ex situ stock will likely be needed in order to
establish a sufficient number of plants for recovery within each location and an additional location
will need to be established. Research into pollination vectors is needed.
Species: Cyrtandra tintinnabula
Recovery Action: Propagation and maintenance of ex situ genetic stock is necessary. Populations
should be protected from cattle via fencing or other means, and competing alien plant taxa,
specifically Schinus terebinthifolius, lantana, and fountaingrass, should be controlled. Habitat of this
species should be protected from residential and recreational development in sufficient area to allow
for full recovery of the species.
Species: Nothocestrum breviflorum
Recovery Action: Recent discoveries of several large populations indicate that this plant is not as rare
as once thought. Populations should be monitored to ensure that numbers are being maintained. After
habitat on which at least five of the larger populations occur is managed to control threats from feral
animals, alien taxa, and military training, delisting of this species can be considered.
Species: Silene hawaiiensis
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Recovery Actions: Construct fenced exclosures around the known populations, and initiate removal
of ungulates and alien plant taxa. Once they are fenced, ungulates and alien plants should be
removed. Outplant new populations in areas of reduced threat. Prior to and following outplanting, the
sites’ alien plants should be removed.
Species: Phyllostegia racemosa, Phyllostegia velutina, Sicyos macrophyllus
Since endangered plants are a Refuge Purpose species, many of the CCP goals, objectives and
strategies tie directly to plant recovery. Native forest restoration, including plant and animal species
that are components of the forest, is the key element of this CCP and future management at Hakalau
Forest NWR.
Recovery Plan for Four Species of Hawaiian Ferns (USFWS 1998)
The most important recovery action for this taxon is to protect high elevation lava tubes, including
removal of feral animals. Asplenium fragile var. insulare has a very scattered distribution and
surveys will help determine the best areas for habitat protection. Optimal survey areas can be
determined by considering the age of the substrate and the vegetation type.
Protection of high elevation lava tubes is included as Objective 2a. The key elements of fencing and
ungulate removal will provide a direct benefit to this species.
Revised Recovery Plan for the ‘Alalā (USFWS 2009)
The ‘alalā, is listed as endangered without critical habitat. No individuals are known to exist in the
wild. As of 2010, 66 ‘alalā, representing the entire population of the species, are in captivity;
including 1 bird at the San Diego Wild Animal Park and the remaining 65 at the Keauhou and Maui
Bird Conservation Centers on Hawai‘i and Maui islands, respectively.
Recovery Objective: The ‘alalā currently exists only as a small population in captivity, and so the
exact needs of the recovery program cannot be specified beyond a relatively short time horizon.
Recovery of this species will require both sustained, long-term conservation actions and repeated
experimentation to determine the optimal means to reestablish wild populations. This recovery plan’s
structure reflects these needs by articulating both long-term strategies (the Strategic Plan) and short-term
actions (Implementation Plans) which will be revised regularly. The elements of the recovery
strategy are to (1) expand captive propagation to minimize the loss of genetic diversity, (2) identify,
protect, and manage suitable habitat, and reduce threats at the selected release sites, (3) introduce
birds into the wild in suitably managed habitat once the captive population is stabilized, (4) garner
public support and funding, and (5) conduct research and adaptively manage the ‘alalā recovery
program.
Recovery Actions:
1. Manage the population of ‘alalā by increasing the number of captive ‘alalā from the current
population of 66 to at least 75 individuals to retain all possible genetic diversity and provide
individuals for release into the wild. This will require construction and appropriate staffing of the
captive propagation infrastructure necessary to accommodate the increasing size of the captive
population.
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Chapter 1. Introduction and Background 1-25
2. Identify suitable habitat and manage threats by selecting and managing at least one site within
historical habitat so that threats, including disease and predator numbers, are minimized to the
extent the site is suitable for the release of captive reared ‘alalā.
3. Establish new populations in suitable habitat by selecting and preparing captive-reared ‘alalā for
release, and planning release protocols to maximize survival and obtain crucial information for
improvement of subsequent releases.
4. Garner public support using professionally designed strategies to develop nongovernmental
funding sources to support expanded captive propagation, habitat management and ‘alalā
reintroduction. Also, achieve stakeholder support for predator and ungulate management and
post-release ‘alalā monitoring.
5. Conduct research and adaptively manage the recovery program by establishing a recovery
implementation working group involving key stakeholders and by assigning overall recovery
coordination to a single individual with performance milestones to be reviewed annually by the
recovery team.
The KFU was originally acquired and set aside specifically for protection of the ���alalā. Native forest
restoration at KFU is a key component of recovery actions 2 and 3.
Recovery Plan for the ‘Io (1984)
The ‘io (Buteo solitarius, Hawaiian Hawk) was listed as endangered on March 11, 1967, based on its
restricted range (found only on the Island of Hawai‘i), its small population size, and the loss of native
forest habitat from agriculture, logging, and commercial development.
However, at the time of listing there had been no systematic surveys or ecological studies of the
species, and the only information available was from anecdotal accounts that gave differing reports
on its abundance and population trend in various parts of the island.
Due to implementation of recovery actions and other conservation efforts, the species is now found
throughout the Island of Hawai‘i and has had a stable population for at least 20 years. It is nesting
and foraging successfully in both native and altered habitats and has large areas of protected habitat.
The ‘io is not currently believed to be threatened by overutilization, disease, predation, contaminants,
lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms, or other factors.
On August 6, 2008, the Service proposed to remove the ‘io from its current listing as endangered
under the Endangered Species Act. On February 11, 2009, the Service formally announced the
availability of the draft Post-Delisting Monitoring Plan for the ‘io and reopened a 60-day public
comment period that closed on April 13, 2009 (74 FR 6853). The Service is considering public
comments received during the public review periods and has not yet published a final rule.
The recovery plan for ‘io has not been updated since 1984. The recovery objectives listed here are
relevant; however, review and update will help to obtain current data and refine or adjust recovery
objectives and/or actions.
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Recovery Criteria: The prime objective is to ensure a self-sustaining ‘io population in the range of
1,500-2,500 adult birds in the wild, as distributed in 1983, and maintained in stable, secure habitat.
For purposes of tracking the progress, 2,000 will be used as a target to reclassify to threatened status.
Both units of Hakalau Forest NWR provide habitat for the ‘io. Management strategies that improve
native habitat conditions will benefit ‘io populations.
Draft Revised Recovery Plan for the Nēnē (USFWS 2004)
Recovery Criteria: Restore and maintain multiple self-sustaining nēnē (Branta sandvichensis)
populations on Hawai‘i, Maui Nui (Maui, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Kaho‘olawe), and Kaua‘i. Additionally,
the threats to the species must be reduced to allow for the long-term viability of these populations,
and sufficient suitable habitat must be identified, protected, and managed in perpetuity on each of
these islands such that the species no longer meets the definition of endangered or threatened under
the Endangered Species Act.
Recovery Actions:
1. Identify and protect nēnē habitat, focusing on the identification and protection of sufficient
habitat to sustain target population levels;
2. Manage habitat and existing populations for sustainable productivity and survival complemented
by monitoring changes in distribution and abundance;
3. Control alien predators, which addresses control of introduced mammals to enhance nēnē
populations;
4. Continue captive propagation program, which describes techniques and priorities for the captive
propagation and release of nēnē into the wild;
5. Establish additional nēnē populations, which focuses on partnerships with private landowners;
6. Address conflicts between nēnē and human activities, which includes potential management and
relocation of nēnē in unsuitable areas;
7. Identify new research needs and continue research, which describes general categories of
research needed to better evaluate threats to nēnē and develop and evaluate management
strategies to address these threats;
8. Provide a public education and information program, which describes important outreach and
education activities; and
9. Validate recovery actions, which calls for formalizing the Nēnē Recovery Action Group and
evaluating management and research projects to determine if recovery objectives have been met.
The CCP identifies specific management actions that will benefit the nēnē population on the Hakalau
Forest Unit. Strategies include nonnative predator control and maintenance of firebreaks and access
roads for nēnē foraging.
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1.7 Planning and Issue Identification
In February 2009, we mailed approximately 150 copies of Planning Update 1 to interested
individuals; local conservation and interest groups; research organizations; local, State, and Federal
government agencies; and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA). Planning Update 1 was available at
two public open house meetings we held in Hilo and Captain Cook, Hawai'i, in March 2009. It was
also posted on the Refuge’s website (http://www.fws.gov/hakalauforest/planning.html) and the
Service’s Pacific Region refuge planning website
(http://www.fws.gov/pacific/planning/main/docs/HI-PI/docshakalau.htm).
In Planning Update 1, we described the CCP planning process; Refuge purposes; draft wildlife,
habitat, and public use goals; and preliminary issues to be considered in the CCP. In Planning Update
2 we summarized the comments we received and listed primary management issues we used to draft
alternatives and refine draft goals and objectives. We also included draft vision statements for both
units.
1.7.1 Public Scoping Sessions
The public scoping period for this CCP opened February 25, 2009, and ended March 27, 2009. Two
public meetings were held, in Hilo and Captain Cook, Hawai‘i, on March 3, 2009, and March 4,
2009, respectively. At the meetings, Refuge staff explained the CCP planning process; the Refuge
purposes, vision, and management; and preliminary management issues, concerns, and opportunities.
Refuge staff also answered questions from attendees and received written comments. Twelve private
citizens and representatives from various organizations attended the meetings and commented on the
issues and opportunities we presented. Six written responses were received from individuals or
organizations during scoping. The comments we received addressed broad or long-range issues and
very specific or detailed strategies that could be used to achieve biological or public use objectives.
Summaries of the issues identified to date follow.
How can we best protect endangered forest birds and the nēnē?
The primary purpose of the Refuge is protection of endangered species. We manage Refuge
resources to ensure high-quality habitat is available for endangered species, especially forest birds.
Drawing on 20 years of Refuge management experience at the HFU, we have included objectives
and strategies in this Draft CCP/EA for maintaining and enhancing native habitat communities to
provide the life-history needs of Hakalau Forest NWR’s endangered species.
How can we best protect montane wet koa/‘ōhi‘a forest, montane dry koa/‘ōhi‘a/māmane
forest, lava tubes, and lavatube skylights?
These habitat types are key to the survival of endangered species. Refuge management objectives and
strategies will be designed to protect these habitat types, and where appropriate, restore areas to high-quality
habitat. We describe alternatives for managing these important resources in Chapter 2.
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What opportunities exist for expanding environmental education through outreach and onsite
programs?
Refuge staff have worked with ‘Imi Pono no ka ‘Āina on environmental education opportunities
onsite and offsite in local schools. Through the CCP planning process, we have identified additional
partnerships or opportunities to expand upon the work that is already in place (e.g., through the
Friends of Hakalau Forest Refuge).
How can we best prepare for, manage, and prevent the spread of wildfires?
There is concern, especially from adjacent landowners, that a wildfire could be ignited on the Refuge
then spread onto private land. The Refuge currently coordinates with the County of Hawai‘i to
provide wildland fire fighting capabilities. We are also concerned about the potential for wildfire as
habitat restoration efforts are implemented. Within the past year, a fire adjacent to the HFU came
close to spreading onto Refuge lands. Close coordination with the County, other agencies, and
adjacent landowners is essential to ensure an efficient response to fire threats. As part of the Draft
CCP/EA, Refuge staff will review options for creating firebreaks and obtaining the equipment and
personnel required to meet firefighting needs at both units.
How can we keep refuge visitors and others (e.g. contractors, Service staff) from trespassing on
adjacent lands?
The KFU is currently closed to the public. At both units, a number of contractors and Refuge staff
use the easements for accessing the Refuge. We continue to impress upon all individuals who access
the areas the importance of using only the authorized and in some cases court-ordered easements.
Where appropriate, trespass incidents will be referred to Service law enforcement.
Is acquiring additional easements for accessing the Kona Forest Unit feasible?
The existing easement includes difficult access from the Mamalahoa Highway, steep slopes, and
multiple gates. At this point, no additional access or easement opportunities have been identified.
We will continue to explore options if they arise.
What Native Hawaiian gathering activities occur on the Refuge?
To date, there have been very few access requests for gathering activities. As part of the CCP,
Refuge staff plan to review the process for granting Special Use Permits for gathering activities.
Can we maintain public access to the historic Kaunene Trail?
We have reviewed options for access to the trail. At this time access, safety, and resource
management needs preclude maintenance and public access to the trail. Over time, we could revisit
opportunities to reopen the Kaunene Trail.
Do the Refuge units meet the minimum requirements for a wilderness designation nomination?
A wilderness review, as required by Service policy, has been conducted as part of the CCP planning
process and is included as Appendix D.
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Is there the potential to protect habitat for endangered forest birds through additional land
acquisition or conservation easements?
At each unit we will consider opportunities for Refuge boundary expansion on a case-by-case basis,
and in accordance with Service policy. The Refuge is working with nongovernment conservation
organizations (NGOs) that are familiar with private lands in the vicinity of existing refuge units in
evaluating any feasible acquisition opportunities that may arise. Currently, two tracts of land with
high-quality habitat within the HFU’s approved acquisition boundary have not been acquired and are
being managed by an agency partner. All of the land within the acquisition boundary for the KFU has
been acquired. We encourage landowners with high-quality habitat for forest birds to manage their
lands for conservation. In addition, Refuge staff will work with Regional staff to develop a land
conservation plan as outlined in objectives 1e and 3e in Chapter 2.
How can we better manage the Kona Forest Unit’s ungulate populations?
Refuge staff are in the process of administering a contract to build a perimeter fence around the unit
and two interior fences that would create three management areas within the unit. Options and
opportunities for ungulate management, including removal, are included as part of the management
of the KFU in the preferred alternative.
How will climate change impact the Refuge?
The Refuge's two units are unique in the Hawaiian Islands because of the range of elevations that
occur on Refuge lands. Through the CCP planning process we will evaluate the effectiveness,
impacts, and benefits of providing wildlife habitats at a variety of elevations, temperatures, and
rainfall regimes, so that wildlife can move between as conditions are altered through climate change
processes.
1.7.2 Interagency Scoping
On July 1, 2009, Refuge and Hawaiian and Pacific Islands staff members met with some of our
agency partners to discuss planning for Hakalau Forest NWR. Individuals from the DLNR, DHHL,
USGS/BRD, and U.S. Department of Agriculture attended the meeting. Refuge staff provided an
overview of the planning process and current management of the Refuge. The following list of issues
was developed based upon feedback received from these individuals.
• Desire by partners to see staff and a satellite office in the vicinity of the KFU;
• Potential for some joint planning with NPS at Kahuku;
• Interest in developing some sort of “Partnership Boundary” that could include Three Mountain
Alliance, Mauna Kea Watershed Alliance, Wai‘ea;
• Need for strong management partnerships at KFU;
• Climate Change
o Issues that will likely become larger in the context of climate change include avian malaria,
the need for corridors to connect habitat fragments;
o Quote - “This is one of Hawai‘i’s great opportunities to deal with climate change”;
o The Plan should look for opportunities to connect the subalpine habitat with wet-lower
elevation habitats;
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• On adjacent lands, DHHL is considering māmane restoration, bird corridors, koa restoration, and
gorse control. [Since this meeting DHHL’s ‘Āina Mauna Legacy Program more completely
outlines specific plans for adjacent areas.];
• Endangered plants are an important piece of the habitats that are being restored. We should
specify actions and species;
• There should be more exploration into carbon sequestration. Previous efforts did not get off the
ground, but there is an emerging market for “boutique” carbon that could serve Hakalau well;
• Research
o There is a need for research into habitat and species responses to adaptive management to
help make adjustments over time;
o There is a greater need for monitoring than for pure research;
o Consider developing a Research Management Plan with a formal subcommittee;
o Need a way to filter research requests;
• Additional enforcement should be present at both units;
• Education/Outreach
o Consider expanding the open house to twice per year;
o Develop an airport kiosk;
o Host an annual “low-budget” research symposium: potential ideas include poster sessions,
keynote speakers, in conjunction with other events that may be occurring on island.
• Hakalau nēnē appear to be a migratory subpopulation that could provide an additional avenue for
education about management at Hakalau;
• Develop a bibliography of Hakalau research; and
• Review and use the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park ungulate control Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS).
1.7.3 Forest Bird Workshop
The Service held a workshop with partner agencies, renowned forest bird researchers, and
statisticians in Hilo October 8-10, 2008, to expand a review of the current status of the Hawai‘i
‘akepa and other endangered Hawaiian forest birds at the Refuge for development of options for
management alternatives for the CCP.
The Service has received contradictory information over the population status of the endangered
Hawai‘i ‘ākepa in a portion of the Refuge, a major stronghold of the species, over the last several
years. The Regional Director obtained the assistance of the USGS’ Dr. J. Michael Scott in
conducting a review of available information on the Hawai‘i ‘akepa, and this workshop was an
extension of the review.
The agenda was focused on the endangered Hawaiian forest birds found at the Refuge. It was
anticipated that although the workshop focused specifically on the Refuge, much of the information
shared would be applicable to these species throughout their ranges and to the broader Mauna Kea
and Hawai‘i Island ecosystems or forest bird survey methodology in general.
The workshop purposes and objectives were:
1. Identify and prioritize management needs and activities, including research, at Hakalau Forest
NWR to recover endangered Hawaiian forest birds;
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Chapter 1. Introduction and Background 1-31
2. Incorporate identified needs and activities in the Hakalau Forest 15-year CCP; and
3. Extrapolate Hakalau-specific information to the broader Mauna Kea area and other geographic
areas and bird species and suites of birds as appropriate.
Aa number of suggestions came out of the workshop. The suggestions are listed below. The rankings
for each of the lists are based upon voting by workshop participants. The complete forest bird
workshop summary is included as Appendix E.
Immediate Threats to Hawaiian Forest Birds at Hakalau Forest NWR
1. Ungulates;
2. Lack of Habitat;
3. Invasive Plants;
4. Predation;
5. Data Insufficient to Meet Management Needs;
6. Parasites; and
7. Interspecific Competition.
Management Actions (Priority Ranking by Workshop Participants)
1. *Grazers/browsers (Habitat destruction/relative to mosquito production) (High)
• Fence construction, maintenance, and removal of animals;
• See Research Priorities;
2. Habitat Restoration (High)
• Revegetation of pasture land;
• Improve ‘ōhi‘a densities;
3. Invasive plants (High)
• Continue invasive species control (e.g., blackberry, banana poka, gorse);
• Prevent and eliminate incipient weeds;
• See Research Priorities;
4. Monitoring and Data Needs (High)
• See Research priorities;
• Delivery of technical information;
5. Predation (Medium)
• See Research priorities;
6. Parasites (Low)
• Incipient invasive parasites, true population counts, delouse birds;
7. Interspecific competition (Low)
• See Research priorities;
• Identify ectoparasites/mites.
Research Priorities (Priority Ranked by Workshop Participants)
1. Monitoring and Data: Expand point counts/banding data (combined primary counter training,
consider use of a B-Bird (Breeding Biology Research and Monitoring Database) system
(http://www.umt.edu/bbird/info.htm), and threat surveillance);
2. Predation: Investigate effects of rats on forest birds; rodent population index;
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1-32 Chapter 1. Introduction and Background
3. Invasive Plants: Develop effective biocontrols;
4. *Grazers/Browsers: Predator proof fencing;
5. Invasive Plants: Develop more efficient control methods and registration of herbicides;
5. Determine the effects of global climate change at the Refuge;
6. Develop more effective cat control techniques;
6. Determine effects of ectoparasites on non-endangered bird populations; and
7. Experimental control of Japanese white-eyes.
*Caveat: Activities to construct an ungulate-proof fence and a predator-proof fence caused some
confusion. Dr. Scott obtained consensus that these activities could be combined with a third separate
but related activity of removing ungulates.
1.8 Refuge Purposes
The Administration Act directs the Service to manage each refuge to fulfill the mission of the Refuge
System, as well as the specific purposes for which that refuge was established. Refuge purposes are
the driving force in developing refuge vision statements, goals, objectives, and strategies in the CCP.
Refuge purposes are also critical to determining the compatibility of all existing and proposed refuge
uses.
Lands within the Refuge System are acquired and managed under a variety of legislative acts,
administrative orders, and legal authorities. The official purpose or purposes for a refuge are
specified in or derived from the law, proclamation, executive order, agreement, public land order,
donation document, or administrative memorandum establishing, authorizing, or expanding a refuge,
refuge unit, or refuge subunit. The Service defines the purpose of a refuge when it is established or
when new land is added to an existing refuge. When an addition to a refuge is acquired under an
authority different from the authority used to establish the original refuge, the addition takes on the
purposes of the original refuge, but the original refuge does not take on the purposes of the addition.
Refuge managers must consider all of the purposes.
1.8.1 Hakalau Forest Unit Purposes
• “… to conserve (A) fish or wildlife which are listed as endangered species or threatened species .
. . or (B) plants . . . (C) the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species
depend . . .” (Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, 16 U.S.C., 1534);
• “To assure the perpetuation of native forest habitats of the Upper Hakalau Forest for the
protection of a number of endangered animals and plants endemic to the area. . . .” (FONSI for
the Environmental Assessment: Proposal to Establish an Upper Hakalau National Wildlife
Refuge, Hawai‘i County, Hawai‘i, May 1985),
1.8.2 Kona Forest Unit Purposes
• The purposes listed for the Hakalau Forest Unit also apply to the Kona Forest Unit.
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Chapter 1. Introduction and Background 1-33
• In addition, “. . .to protect, conserve, and manage a portion of the native forest in south Kona,
primarily for the benefit of the ‘alalā and other endangered and threatened species” (1997 Final
Environmental Assessment for the Proposed Kona Forest Unit of the Hakalau Forest NWR)
1.9 Refuge Vision
A CCP describes management actions that help bring a refuge closer to its vision. A vision broadly
reflects the refuge purposes, the Refuge System mission and goals, other statutory requirements, and
larger-scale plans as appropriate. Public use and wildlife/habitat management goals then define
general targets in support of the vision, followed by objectives that direct effort into incremental and
measurable steps toward achieving those goals. Finally, strategies identify specific tools and actions
to accomplish objectives.
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge (Ka Pu‘uhonua Waonahele Aupuni ‘o Hakalau)
Aia nō i uka i ke kua ko‘olau o Mauna Kea ka pu‘uhonua waonahele aupuni ‘o Hakalau. He wahi
kēia e hui ai kānaka e laulima ma o ke ka‘analike aku, ka‘analike mai i ka ‘ike, ka no‘eau, a me ka
mana i mea e ho‘opalekana, ho‘oikaika, a ho‘ōla hou ai i ke ola maoli e noho ana ma ka waonahele.
Ua kapa ‘ia ka inoa ‘o Hakalau no ka nui o nā haka e noho ‘ia e nā manu ‘ōiwi. I kēia lā ‘o
Hakalau kekahi o nā home nunui no ka hui manu Hawai‘i ‘ane make loa. Kīkaha a‘ela nā manu, nā
pua laha ‘ole ho‘i, i ka ‘ohu‘ohu o Hakalau a ma lalo iki e mūkīkī i ka wai pua ‘ōhi‘a. Ua nani nō
ka ‘ikena a ‘upu a‘ela nō ke aloha no kēia ‘āina nei no nā kau a kau.
On the windward slope of majestic Mauna Kea, midway between summit and sea, lies Hakalau
Forest NWR, a place where people come together to laulima, “many hands working together,” to
share their knowledge, to share their skills, and to share their energy to protect, to enhance, to restore,
and to respect Hawaiian wildlife. Known to Hawaiians as “place of many perches,” verdant
rainforest supports the largest populations of endangered Hawaiian forest birds. Crimson, orange,
yellow, and green hued birds, the jewels of Hakalau, flit through the mist, pausing to sip nectar from
‘ōhi‘a lehua, inspire joy and wonder for present and future generations.
Kona Forest Unit (Ka Waonahele o Kona)
Mai Mauna Kea nō a ka‘a i lalo, a hiki aku i Mauna Loa, ma laila nō ka waonahele o Kona, kahi e
noho lewalewa ana nā ao ‘ōpua i ka ‘uhiwai e hō‘olu‘olu ana i ka ulu lā‘au. ‘Ike ‘ia ka ‘io e kīkaha
ana ma luna loa o ka papa kaupoku i ho‘owehiwehi ‘ia me ka limu. Ma lalo o ke kaupoku koa me
‘ōhi‘a, e ‘imi ana ka ‘alalā me kona hoa manu i ka hua‘ai, wai pua, a me nā mea kolokolo i mea ‘ai
na lākou. Aia nō ma ka malumalu o nā ana kahe pele kahiko nā mea kanu kāka‘ikahi o ka ‘āina, a
me nā iwi o nā manu make loa ma Hawai‘i. Kuahui maila nō nā hoa mālama ‘āina i ola hou ka
nohona o nā mea ‘ane make loa ma kēia ‘āina nui ākea.
On leeward Mauna Loa, where the clouds kiss the slopes with cool gray fog, lies the Kona Forest.
‘Alalā and other Hawaiian forest birds forage for fruit, nectar, and insects amongst the lichen-draped
branches and canopy of the old-growth koa/‘ōhi‘a forest