Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan Wilderness Stewardship Plan and Environmental Impact Statement

              Cabeza Prieta
National Wildlife Refuge
Comprehensive Conservation Plan
Wilderness Stewardship Plan and
Environmental Impact Statement
August 2006
Prepared by
Division of Planning
National Wildlife Refuge System, Southwest Region
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 1306
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103
Comprehensive Conservation Plans provide long-term guidance for management decisions; set forth goals,
objectives, and strategies needed to accomplish refuge purposes; and identify the Fish and Wildlife
Service’s best estimate of future needs. These plans detail planning program levels that are sometimes
substantially above current budget allocations and, as such, are primarily for Service strategic planning
and program prioritization purposes. The plans do not constitute a commitment for staffing increases,
operational and maintenance increases, or funding for future land acquisition.
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READER’S GUIDE
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS or Service) will manage the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife
Refuge (NWR) in accordance with an approved Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCP). The CCP
provides long-range guidance on Refuge management through its vision, goals, objective and strategies.
The CCP also provides a basis for a long-term adaptive management process including implementation,
monitoring progress, evaluating and adjusting, and revising plans accordingly. Additional step-down
planning will be required prior to implementation of certain programs and projects.
This document combines a Comprehensive Conservation Plan, Wilderness Stewardship Plan and
Environmental Impact Statement (CCP/WSP/EIS). This revised Final CCP/WSP/EIS incorporates
changes based on public and agency comments received during public review of the Draft CCP/WSP/EIS,
released in March 2005. Following publication of the Final CCP/WSP/EIS, the Service will publish a Record
of Decision (ROD) confirming that the preferred management alternative identified in the plan is suitable
for implementation. At this point, Cabeza Prieta NWR will initiate implementation of the management plan
detailed in Appendix M of the CCP/WSP/EIS. The following chapter and appendix descriptions are
provided to assist readers in locating and understanding the various components of this combined
document.
Chapter 1, Introduction, Purpose and Need for Action, includes general information about the National
Wildlife Refuge System and Cabeza Prieta NWR, such as planning policy, regional context, history of
refuge establishment, past management trends, designation of Federal Wilderness, and Cabeza Prieta
NWR Vision Statement. This chapter also describes planning issues identified through public and agency
scoping.
Chapter 2, Management Alternatives, describes each of the five management alternatives analyzed in the
EIS. Alternative 1 is the “No Action” alternative, or current management practices at the refuge.
Alternative 2 is a minimum intervention alternative, featuring very limited active management. Alternative
3 is the restrained intervention alternative, and focuses on a modest amount of active management.
Alternative 4, the preferred alternative, features more active intervention than Alternatives 2 and 3.
Alternative 5, maximum effort, features intensive management aimed at maximizing numbers of desert
bighorn sheep and maximizing public use of the refuge.
Chapter 3, The Affected Environment, provides a baseline description of refuge resources. Resources
include the physical environment, water resources, habitat and wildlife resources, refuge facilities, special
management areas, cultural resources and the regional economy. This information provides the baseline
against which each alternative’s impacts are measured in Chapter 4.
Chapter 4, Environmental Consequences, provides an analysis of the impacts to each resource described
in Chapter 3 that would result from implementing each alternative. Chapter 4 also describes cumulative
impact and environmental justice considerations. This is probably the most important section of the EIS,
Appendix A: Legal, Policy and Administrative Guidelines and Other Special Considerations, provides
additional background regarding the Federal laws, regulations and policies that govern administration of
the National Wildlife Refuge System.
Appendix B: Interagency Agreements contains a current copy of the Memorandum of Understanding
among the United States Department of Homeland Security and United States Department of the Interior
and United States Department of Agriculture Regarding Cooperative National Security and
Counterterrorism Efforts on Federal Lands along the United States’ Borders, as signed in March 2006.
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Appendix C: Comments Received on Draft CCP/WSP/EIS, contains verbatim transcripts of public
hearing testimony and copies of written public comments received during the public and agency review
period of the Draft CCP/WSP/EIS.
Appendix D, Response to Public Comments, contains summaries of substantive public and agency
comments received, grouped by topic, along with the Service response to the comments.
Appendix E, Plant Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, is a list of all the plant
species known to occur on the refuge. Invasive and exotic species are indicated in the text.
Appendix F, Minimum Requirements Analyses for Refuge Management Actions in Cabeza Prieta
National Wildlife Refuge Designated Wilderness, generic MRAs for each class of management action
proposed in Alternative 4 are included in this appendix. These analyses demonstrate the general compliance
of the activity class with wilderness. Site and project-specific Minimum Requirements Analyses will still be
completed for individual management actions.
Appendix G, Compatibility Determinations for Public Uses at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife
Refuge, contains completed determinations of the compatibility of each public use proposed in Alternative 4
with the refuge purposes.
Appendix H, Bird Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, is a list of all the bird
species known to occur on the refuge. The frequency and season of occurrence of each species is also
indicated.
Appendix I, Mammal Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, is a list of all the
mammal species known to occur on the refuge.
Appendix J, Amphibian and Reptile Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge,
includes lists of all the amphibian and reptile species known to occur on the refuge.
Appendix K, Social Impact Analysis Report, is the full text of a report completed by the U.S. Geological
Service analyzing the social impacts of the various refuge management alternatives. This report informs the
social impact discussions of found in Chapter 4.
Appendix L, Regional Economic Effects of Current and Proposed Management, is the full text of a
report completed by the U.S. Geological Service analyzing the economic impacts of the various refuge
management alternatives. This report informs the economic impact discussions of found in Chapter 4.
Appendix M, Comprehensive Conservation Plan Management Goals, Objectives and Strategies, this
appendix is the functional CCP. It presents the management regime of Alternative 4, the preferred
alternative, in detail.
Appendix N, Intra-Service Biological Opinion for the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge
Comprehensive Conservation Plan, Arizona, is a review of the potential effects of implementing the CCP
upon threatened and endangered species, as required under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act.
Appendix O, References Cited, is the bibliography of the CCP/WSP/EIS.
Appendix P, List of Preparers, includes all the individuals or groups who assisted in preparation of the
CCP/WSP/EIS.
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Table of Contents
READER’S GUIDE ..................................................................................................................................................... I
1.0 INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR ACTION...........................................................1
1.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Goals of Refuge Planning ...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 PURPOSE AND NEED FOR PLAN ACTIONS......................................................................................2
1.3 NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE SYSTEM MISSION, GOALS AND GUIDING
PRINCIPLES................................................................................................................................................................3
1.4 ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO CONSERVATION AND THE GILA/SALT/VERDE
ECOSYSTEM................................................................................................................................................................4
1.5 HISTORY OF REFUGE ESTABLISHMENT, ACQUISITION AND MANAGEMENT................6
1.5.1 The Game Range ........................................................................................................................................6
1.5.2 Military Lands Withdrawal .......................................................................................................................6
1.5.3 National Wildlife Refuge Administration Act .........................................................................................9
1.5.4 From Game Range to National Wildlife Refuge.....................................................................................9
1.5.5 Grazing History ..........................................................................................................................................9
1.5.6 Trespass Livestock History.....................................................................................................................11
1.5.7 Mining History..........................................................................................................................................11
1.5.8 The Endangered Species Act (ESA) and Sonoran Pronghorn...........................................................12
1.5.9 Wilderness Designation...........................................................................................................................13
1.6 LEGAL AND POLICY GUIDANCE ........................................................................................................14
1.6.1 The National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee), as
amended, by the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (H.R. 1420, 105th Congress)
.....................................................................................................................................................................14
1.6.2 Wilderness Act of 1964 (16 U.S.C. 1131-1136).......................................................................................17
1.6.3 Arizona Desert Wilderness Act of 1990 .................................................................................................18
1.6.4 Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1531-1543 87 Stat. 884) (P.L. 93-205) .........................18
1.6.5 The Archeological Resource Protection Act of 1979 (ARPA) (P.L. 96-95, 93 Sta. 721, dated
October 1979) (16 U.S.C. 470aa - 470ll) .................................................................................................................18
1.6.6 Military Lands Withdrawal Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-606) .........................................................................18
1.6.7 Military Land Withdrawal Act of 1999 (Public Law 106-65)...............................................................21
1.6.8 American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978) and Amendments of 1994. ....................................21
1.6.9 Executive Order 13007 - Sacred Sites (May 24, 1996)..........................................................................21
1.6.10 Other Guidance ....................................................................................................................................22
1.6.10.1 Fulfilling the Promise ..........................................................................................................................22
1.6.10.2 Policy Manuals and Plan......................................................................................................................22
1.6.10.3 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Native American Policy (1995) .....................................................22
1.6.10.4 Interagency Wilderness Strategic Plan 1995 ...................................................................................22
1.6.10.5 Wilderness Stewardship Training......................................................................................................23
1.7 REFUGE PURPOSES................................................................................................................................23
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1.8 REFUGE VISION STATEMENT.............................................................................................................23
1.8.1 At Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, wildlife conservation comes first. ...............................23
1.8.2 Proactive management is important to the recovery and conservation of endangered species ....23
1.8.3 Refuge wilderness resources are protected for posterity ...................................................................24
1.8.4 The beauty and solitude of the refuge will continue to be enjoyed by visitors. ................................24
1.8.5 The refuge embraces cooperative working relationships with partners. ..........................................24
1.9 REFUGE MANAGEMENT DIRECTION: GOALS AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES....................25
1.9.1 Wildlife and Habitat Management..........................................................................................................25
1.9.2 Wilderness Stewardship..........................................................................................................................25
1.9.3 Visitor Services Management..................................................................................................................25
1.9.4 Cultural Resources Management ...........................................................................................................26
1.10 STEP-DOWN PLANS.................................................................................................................................26
1.11 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANNING PROCESS ...............................................................................26
1.11.1 Notice of Intent for Environmental Impact Statement and CCP.................................................26
1.11.2 Refining Issues Through Public and Agency Scoping ....................................................................27
1.11.3 Gathering Information, Assessing Resource Relationships, Analyzing Environmental Effects
and Rewriting the Plan ..........................................................................................................................................27
1.11.4 Guidance Used for Preparation of a CCP/WSP/EIS ......................................................................27
1.12 PLANNING ISSUES..................................................................................................................................28
1.12.1 Wildlife and Habitat Management.....................................................................................................28
1.12.2 Managing Healthy Ecosystems..........................................................................................................28
1.12.3 Endangered Species Management ....................................................................................................29
1.12.4 Desert Bighorn Sheep Management .................................................................................................29
1.12.5 Predator Management........................................................................................................................30
1.12.6 Wilderness Stewardship.....................................................................................................................30
1.12.7 Wildlife Dependent Visitor Services..................................................................................................31
1.12.7.1 Recreation in Wilderness ...............................................................................................................31
1.12.7.2 Permitting and Access ....................................................................................................................31
1.12.7.3 Motorized Access and Vehicle Restrictions in Non-Wilderness...............................................32
1.12.7.4 Hunting............................................................................................................................................32
1.12.7.5 Environmental Education and Interpretation ............................................................................32
1.12.7.6 Other Public Uses: Backpacking and Camping...........................................................................33
1.12.8 Cultural Resource Management ...................................................................................................33
1.12.9 Border Law Enforcement ...................................................................................................................33
1.12.10 Military Use .........................................................................................................................................34
1.13 ISSUES NOT SELECTED FOR DETAILED ANALYSIS.................................................................34
1.13.1 Issues Completed Under Separate Environmental Assessments.................................................34
1.13.1.1 Air Force Station (AFS) at Childs Mountain ..............................................................................34
1.13.1.2 FAA Surveillance Radar on Childs Mountain .............................................................................34
1.13.1.3 Watchable Wildlife Site on Childs Mountain ...............................................................................35
1.13.2 Issues Covered by Existing Policy, Law, or Regulations and Common to All Alternatives .....35
1.13.2.1 Border Law Enforcement Activities.............................................................................................35
1.13.2.2 Fire Management...........................................................................................................................36
1.13.2.3 Trespass Livestock.........................................................................................................................36
1.13.2.4 Pets...................................................................................................................................................36
1.13.2.5 Firearms ..........................................................................................................................................36
1.13.2.6 Commercial Uses............................................................................................................................36
1.13.2.7 Congressional Intent in the Arizona Desert Wilderness Act of 1990 ......................................37
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1.13.3 Issue to be Determined Pending Adoption of Wilderness Policy Revisions: Wheeled Game
Carriers ................................................................................................................................................................37
1.13.4 Issues Beyond the Scope of this Plan ................................................................................................37
1.13.4.1 Remove Wilderness Designation...................................................................................................37
1.13.4.2 Turn the Refuge over to the State ................................................................................................37
1.13.4.3 Sonoran Desert National Park Proposal......................................................................................38
1.13.4.4 Additional Acquisitions ...................................................................................................................38
1.14 EXISTING PARTNERSHIPS, COORDINATION AND COOPERATION .....................................38
1.14.1 Interagency Cooperation....................................................................................................................38
1.14.1.1 Arizona Game and Fish Department (AGFD) ............................................................................38
1.14.1.2 Barry M. Goldwater Range Executive Council (BEC) ..............................................................39
1.14.1.3 The Intergovernmental Executive Committee ...........................................................................40
1.14.1.4 Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument ......................................................................................40
1.14.1.5 Border Law Enforcement ..............................................................................................................40
1.14.1.6 Bureau of Land Management (BLM)...........................................................................................41
1.14.1.7 Tohono O’odham Nation .................................................................................................................41
1.14.1.8 Arizona Interagency Desert Tortoise Team (AIDTT)...............................................................41
1.15 NON-GOVERNMENT COOPERATION.................................................................................................42
1.15.1 International Sonoran Desert Alliance (ISDA)................................................................................42
1.15.2 Cabeza Prieta Natural History Association .....................................................................................42
2.0 MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES ........................................................................................................43
2. 1 ELEMENTS COMMON TO ALL ALTERNATIVES...........................................................................43
2.1.1 Federal Endangered and Threatened Species .....................................................................................43
2.1.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn .........................................................................................................................43
2.1.1.1.1 Population Monitoring ...............................................................................................................44
2.1.1.1.2 Developed Waters.......................................................................................................................44
2.1.1.1.3 Captive Breeding/Translocation...............................................................................................46
2.1.1.1.4 Area Closures.............................................................................................................................49
2.1.1.1.5 Supplemental Feeding and Forage Enhancements ..............................................................49
2.1.1.1.6 Fencing........................................................................................................................................50
2.1.1.2 Lesser Long-nosed Bat Conservation ..........................................................................................50
2.1.1.3 Pierson’s Milkvetch Surveys..........................................................................................................51
2.1.1.4 Desert Pupfish Refugium...............................................................................................................51
2.1.2 Species of Conservation of Concern .......................................................................................................51
2.1.2.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-owl Monitoring...............................................................................51
2.1.2.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep Population Monitoring............................................................................51
2.1.3 Wilderness Stewardship..........................................................................................................................52
2.1.3.1 Minimum Requirements Analysis.................................................................................................52
2.1.3.2 Border Law Enforcement ..............................................................................................................53
2.1.3.3 Wilderness Impact Monitoring......................................................................................................54
2.1.4 Cultural Resources Management ...........................................................................................................54
2.1.5 Research....................................................................................................................................................54
2.1.5.1 Biological Research .........................................................................................................................54
2.1.5.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ....................................................................................................................54
2.1.5.1.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep................................................................................................................55
2.1.5.1.3 Other Species ..............................................................................................................................55
2.1.5.1.4 Ecological Integrity....................................................................................................................55
2.1.6.1.5 Exotic and Invasive Species ......................................................................................................55
2.1.5.2 Wilderness.......................................................................................................................................55
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2.1.5.3 Visitor Services ...............................................................................................................................55
2.1.5.4 Cultural Resources.........................................................................................................................55
2.2 ALTERNATIVE 1: NO ACTION ALTERNATIVE (CURRENT MANAGEMENT).....................56
2.2.1 Goal: Wildlife and Habitat Management................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1 Endangered and Threatened Species...........................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ....................................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.1 Population Monitoring........................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.2 Developed Waters ...............................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.3 Captive Breeding/Translocation .......................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.4 Area Closures.......................................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.5 Supplemental Feeding and Forage Enhancements .......................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.6 Fencing ................................................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.7 Predator Management........................................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.1.8 Habitat Restoration Research...........................................................................................56
2.2.1.1.2 Lesser Long-nosed Bat Conservation .....................................................................................57
2.2.1.1.3 Pierson’s Milkvetch Surveys.....................................................................................................57
2.2.1.1.4 Desert Pupfish Refugium ..........................................................................................................57
2.2.1.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep.....................................................................................................................57
2.2.1.2.1 Developed Waters.......................................................................................................................57
2.2.1.2.2 Forage Enhancements...............................................................................................................57
2.2.1.2.3 Population Goal ...........................................................................................................................57
2.2.1.2.4 Predator Management...............................................................................................................57
2.2.1.3 Desert Ecosystem Integrity Monitoring .....................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-owl...............................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.2 Migratory Birds ..........................................................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians...........................................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.4 Raptors and Ravens ...................................................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.5 Game Animals .............................................................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.6 Long-Term Monitoring..............................................................................................................58
2.2.1.3.7 Exotic/Invasive Species .............................................................................................................58
2.2.2 Goal: Wilderness Stewardship.................................................................................................................61
2.2.2.1 Minimum Requirements Analysis.................................................................................................61
2.2.2.2 Abandoned Vehicles Removal........................................................................................................61
2.2.2.3 Military Debris Removal ................................................................................................................61
2.2.2.4 Administrative Trails ......................................................................................................................61
2.2.2.5 Wilderness Impact Monitoring......................................................................................................62
2.2.2.6 Border Law Enforcement ..............................................................................................................62
2.2.2.7 Licensing Uses of the Childs Mountain Communications Site .................................................62
2.2.3 Goal: Visitor Services...............................................................................................................................62
2.2.3.1 Managing Visitor Access ................................................................................................................62
2.2.3.2 Administering Hunt Program........................................................................................................65
2.2.3.2.1 Desert Bighorn Sheep................................................................................................................65
2.2.3.2.2 Mule Deer ...................................................................................................................................65
2.2.3.2.3 Small Game.................................................................................................................................65
2.2.3.2.4 Predators ....................................................................................................................................65
2.2.3.3 Implementation of Leave-No-Trace Program ............................................................................65
2.2.3.4 Provision of Environmental Education ........................................................................................65
2.2.3.5 Interpretation of Environmental Resources ...............................................................................66
2.2.3.6 Managing Visitor Camping ............................................................................................................66
2.2.3.7 Pack and Saddle Stock Restrictions .............................................................................................66
2.2.4 Goal: Cultural Resources Management .................................................................................................66
2.2.4.1 General Provisions..........................................................................................................................66
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2.2.4.2 On-Site Interpretation ....................................................................................................................66
2.2.4.3 Site Stabilization/Patrols ................................................................................................................67
2.2.4.4 Inventory .........................................................................................................................................67
2.2.4.5 Training............................................................................................................................................67
2.2.5 Staffing.......................................................................................................................................................67
2.3 ALTERNATIVE 2: MINIMUM INTERVENTION..............................................................................68
2.3.1 Goal: Wildlife and Habitat Management................................................................................................68
2.3.1.1 Endangered and Threatened Species...........................................................................................68
2.3.1.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ....................................................................................................................68
2.3.1.1.1.1 Population Monitoring........................................................................................................68
2.3.1.1.1.2 Developed Waters ...............................................................................................................68
2.3.1.1.1.3 Captive Breeding/Translocation .......................................................................................68
2.3.1.1.1.4 Area Closures.......................................................................................................................68
2.3.1.1.1.5 Supplemental Feeding and Forage Enhancements .......................................................69
2.3.1.1.1.6 Fencing ................................................................................................................................69
2.3.1.1.1.7 Predator Management........................................................................................................69
2.3.1.1.1.8 Habitat Restoration Research...........................................................................................69
2.3.1.1.2 Lesser Long-nosed Bat Conservation .....................................................................................69
2.3.1.1.3 Pierson’s Milkvetch Surveys.....................................................................................................69
2.3.1.1.4 Desert Pupfish Refugium ..........................................................................................................69
2.3.1.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep.....................................................................................................................69
2.3.1.2.1 Developed Waters.......................................................................................................................69
2.3.1.2.2 Forage Enhancements...............................................................................................................70
2.3.1.2.3 Population Goal ...........................................................................................................................70
2.3.1.2.4 Predator Management...............................................................................................................70
2.3.1.3 Desert Ecosystem Integrity Monitoring .....................................................................................70
2.3.1.3.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-owl...............................................................................................70
2.3.1.3.2 Migratory Birds ..........................................................................................................................70
2.3.1.3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians...........................................................................................................70
2.3.1.3.4 Raptors and Ravens ...................................................................................................................70
2.3.1.3.5 Game Animals .............................................................................................................................70
2.3.1.3.6 Long-term Monitoring ...............................................................................................................71
2.3.1.3.7 Exotic/Invasive Species .............................................................................................................71
2.3.2 Goal: Wilderness Stewardship.................................................................................................................71
2.3.2.1 Minimum Requirements Analysis.................................................................................................71
2.3.2.2 Abandoned Vehicles Removal........................................................................................................71
2.3.2.3 Military Debris Removal ................................................................................................................71
2.3.2.4 Administrative Trails ......................................................................................................................71
2.3.2.5 Wilderness Impact Monitoring......................................................................................................72
2.3.2.6 Border Law Enforcement ..............................................................................................................72
2.3.2.7 Licensing Uses at the Childs Mountain Communications Site .................................................72
2.3.3 Goal: Visitor Services...............................................................................................................................72
2.3.3.1 Managing Visitor Access ................................................................................................................72
2.3.3.2 Administering Hunt Program........................................................................................................75
2.3.3.2.1 Desert Bighorn Sheep................................................................................................................75
2.3.3.2.2 Mule Deer ...................................................................................................................................75
2.3.3.2.3 Small Game.................................................................................................................................75
2.3.3.2.4 Predators ....................................................................................................................................75
2.3.3.3 Implementation of Leave-No-Trace Program ............................................................................75
2.3.3.4 Provision of Environmental Education ........................................................................................75
2.3.3.5 Interpretation of Natural Resources............................................................................................75
2.3.3.6 Managing Visitor Camping ............................................................................................................76
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2.3.3.7 Pack and Saddle Stock Restrictions .............................................................................................76
2.3.4 Goal: Cultural Resources Management .................................................................................................76
2.3.4.1 General Provisions..........................................................................................................................76
2.3.4.2 On-Site Interpretation ....................................................................................................................76
2.3.4.3 Site Stabilization/Patrols ................................................................................................................76
2.3.4.4 Inventory .........................................................................................................................................76
2.3.4.5 Training............................................................................................................................................76
2.3.5 Staffing.......................................................................................................................................................77
2.4 ALTERNATIVE 3: RESTRAINED INTERVENTION.......................................................................78
2.4.1 Goal: Wildlife and Habitat Management................................................................................................78
2.4.1.1 Endangered and Threatened Species...........................................................................................78
2.4.1.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ....................................................................................................................78
2.4.1.1.1.1 Population Monitoring........................................................................................................78
2.4.1.1.1.2 Developed Waters ...............................................................................................................78
2.4.1.1.1.3 Captive Breeding/Translocation .......................................................................................79
2.4.1.1.1.4 Area Closures.......................................................................................................................79
2.4.1.1.1.5 Supplemental Feeding and Forage Enhancements .......................................................79
2.4.1.1.1.6 Fencing ................................................................................................................................79
2.4.1.1.1.7 Predator Management........................................................................................................79
2.4.1.1.1.8 Habitat Restoration Research...........................................................................................79
2.3.1.1.2 Lesser Long-nosed Bat Conservation .....................................................................................79
2.4.1.1.3 Pierson’s Milkvetch Surveys.....................................................................................................79
2.4.1.1.4 Desert Pupfish Refugium ..........................................................................................................79
2.4.1.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep.....................................................................................................................79
2.4.1.2.1 Developed Waters.......................................................................................................................80
2.4.1.2.2 Forage Enhancements...............................................................................................................80
2.4.1.2.3 Population Goal ...........................................................................................................................80
2.4.1.2.4 Predator Management...............................................................................................................80
2.4.1.3 Desert Ecosystem Integrity Monitoring .....................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-owl...............................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.2 Migratory Birds ..........................................................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.2 Reptiles and Amphibians...........................................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.4 Raptors and Ravens ...................................................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.5 Game Animals .............................................................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.6 Long-term Monitoring ...............................................................................................................81
2.4.1.3.7 Exotic/Invasive Species Control...............................................................................................81
2.4.2 Goal: Wilderness Stewardship.................................................................................................................82
2.4.2.1 Minimum Requirements Analysis.................................................................................................82
2.4.2.2 Abandoned Vehicle Removal..........................................................................................................82
2.4.2.3 Military Debris Removal ................................................................................................................82
2.4.2.4 Administrative Trails ......................................................................................................................82
2.4.2.5 Wilderness Impact Monitoring......................................................................................................85
2.4.2.6 Border Law Enforcement ..............................................................................................................85
2.4.2.7 Licensing Uses of the Childs Mountain Communications Site .................................................85
2.4.3 Goal: Visitor Services...............................................................................................................................85
2.4.3.1 Managing Visitor Access ................................................................................................................86
2.4.3.2 Administering Hunt Program........................................................................................................86
2.4.3.2.1 Desert Bighorn Sheep................................................................................................................86
2.4.3.2.2 Mule Deer ...................................................................................................................................86
2.4.3.2.3 Small Game.................................................................................................................................86
2.4.3.2.4 Predators ....................................................................................................................................86
2.4.3.3 Implementing Leave-No-Trace Program ....................................................................................86
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2.4.3.4 Provision of Environmental Education ........................................................................................87
2.4.3.5 Interpretation of Natural Resources............................................................................................87
2.4.3.6 Managing Visitor Camping ............................................................................................................87
2.4.3.7 Pack and Saddle Stock Restrictions .............................................................................................87
2.4.4 Goal: Cultural Resources Management .................................................................................................88
2.4.4.1 General Provisions..........................................................................................................................88
2.4.4.2 On-Site Interpretation ....................................................................................................................88
2.4.4.3 Site Stabilization/Patrols ................................................................................................................88
2.4.4.4 Inventory .........................................................................................................................................88
2.4.4.5 Training............................................................................................................................................88
2.4.5 Staffing.......................................................................................................................................................88
2.5 ALTERNATIVE 4 (PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE): ACTIVE MANAGEMENT ......................89
2.5.1 Goal: Wildlife and Habitat Management................................................................................................89
2.5.1.1 Endangered and Threatened Species...........................................................................................89
2.5.1.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ....................................................................................................................89
2.5.1.1.1.1 Population Monitoring........................................................................................................89
2.5.1.1.1.2 Developed Waters ...............................................................................................................89
2.5.1.1.1.3 Captive Breeding/Translocation .......................................................................................90
2.5.1.1.1.4 Area Closures.......................................................................................................................90
2.5.1.1.1.5 Supplemental Feeding and Forage Enhancements .......................................................90
2.5.1.1.1.6 Fencing ................................................................................................................................90
2.5.1.1.1.7 Predator Management........................................................................................................90
2.5.1.1.1.8 Habitat Restoration Research...........................................................................................90
2.5.1.1.2 Lesser Long-nosed Bat Conservation .....................................................................................90
2.5.1.1.3 Pierson’s Milkvetch Surveys.....................................................................................................91
2.5.1.1.4 Desert Pupfish Refugium ..........................................................................................................91
2.5.1.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep.....................................................................................................................91
2.5.1.2.1 Developed Waters.......................................................................................................................91
2.5.1.2.2 Forage Enhancement.................................................................................................................91
2.5.1.2.3 Population Goal ...........................................................................................................................91
2.5.1.2.4 Predator Management...............................................................................................................92
2.5.1.3 Desert Ecosystem Integrity Monitoring .....................................................................................92
2.5.1.3.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-owl Monitoring ..........................................................................92
2.5.1.3.2 Migratory Birds..............................................................................................................................92
2.5.1.3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians...........................................................................................................92
2.5.1.3.4 Raptors and Ravens ...................................................................................................................92
2.5.1.3.5 Game Animals .............................................................................................................................93
2.5.1.3.6 Long-term Monitoring ...............................................................................................................93
2.5.1.3.7 Exotic/Invasive Species .............................................................................................................93
2.5.2 Goal: Wilderness Stewardship.................................................................................................................93
2.5.2.1 Minimum Requirements Analysis.................................................................................................93
2.5.2.2 Abandoned Vehicles Removal........................................................................................................94
2.5.2.3 Military Debris Removal ................................................................................................................94
2.5.2.4 Administrative Trails ......................................................................................................................94
2.5.2.5 Wilderness Impact Monitoring......................................................................................................94
2.5.2.6 Border Law Enforcement ..............................................................................................................97
2.5.2.7 Licensing Uses of the Childs Mountain Communications Site .................................................97
2.5.3 Goal: Visitor Services Management........................................................................................................97
2.5.3.1 Managing Visitor Access ................................................................................................................97
2.5.3.2 Administering Hunt Program........................................................................................................98
2.5.3.2.1 Desert Bighorn Sheep.....................................................................................................................98
2.5.3.2.2 Mule Deer ...................................................................................................................................98
x
2.5.3.2.3 Small Game.................................................................................................................................98
2.5.3.2.4 Predators ....................................................................................................................................98
2.5.3.3 Implementing the Leave-No-Trace Program .............................................................................99
2.5.3.4 Provision of Environmental Education ........................................................................................99
2.5.3.5 Interpretation of Environmental Resources ...............................................................................99
2.5.3.6 Managing Visitor Camping ..........................................................................................................100
2.5.3.7 Pack and Saddle Stock Restrictions ...........................................................................................100
2.5.4 Goal: Cultural Resources Management ...............................................................................................100
2.5.4.1 General Provisions........................................................................................................................100
2.5.4.2 Onsite Interpretation ....................................................................................................................100
2.5.4.3 Site Stabilization/Patrols ..............................................................................................................100
2.5.4.4. Inventory .......................................................................................................................................100
2.5.4.5 Training..........................................................................................................................................101
2.5.5 Staffing.....................................................................................................................................................101
2.6 ALTERNATIVE 5: MAXIMUM EFFORT............................................................................................102
2.6.1 Goal: Wildlife and Habitat Management..............................................................................................102
2.6.1.1 Endangered and Threatened Species.........................................................................................102
2.6.1.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ..................................................................................................................102
2.6.1.1.1.1 Population Monitoring......................................................................................................102
2.6.1.1.1.2 Developed Waters .............................................................................................................102
2.6.1.1.1.3 Captive Breeding/Translocation .....................................................................................102
2.6.1.1.1.4 Area Closures.....................................................................................................................103
2.6.1.1.1.5 Supplemental Feeding and Forage Enhancement.......................................................103
2.6.1.1.1.6 Fencing ...............................................................................................................................103
2.6.1.1.1.7 Predator Management......................................................................................................103
2.6.1.1.1.8 Habitat Restoration Research.........................................................................................103
2.6.1.1.2 Lesser Long-nosed Bat Conservation ...................................................................................103
2.6.1.1.3 Pierson’s Milkvetch Surveys...................................................................................................103
2.6.1.1.4 Desert Pupfish Refugium ........................................................................................................104
2.6.1.2 Desert Bighorn Sheep...................................................................................................................104
2.6.1.2.1 Developed Waters.....................................................................................................................104
2.6.1.2.2 Forage Enhancements.............................................................................................................104
2.6.1.2.3 Population Goal .........................................................................................................................105
2.6.1.2.4 Predator Management.............................................................................................................105
2.6.1.3 Desert Ecosystem Integrity Monitoring ...................................................................................105
2.6.1.3.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-owl Monitoring ........................................................................105
2.6.1.3.2 Migratory Birds ........................................................................................................................105
2.6.1.3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians.........................................................................................................105
2.6.1.3.4 Raptors and Ravens .................................................................................................................105
2.6.1.3.5 Game Animal .............................................................................................................................106
2.6.1.3.6 Long-term Monitoring .............................................................................................................106
2.6.1.3.7 Exotic/Invasive Species ...........................................................................................................106
2.6.2 Goal: Wilderness Stewardship...............................................................................................................106
2.6.2.1 Minimum Requirements Analysis...............................................................................................107
2.6.2.2 Abandoned Vehicles Removal......................................................................................................107
2.6.2.3 Military Debris Removal ..............................................................................................................107
2.6.2.4 Administrative Trails ....................................................................................................................107
2.6.2.5 Wilderness Impact Monitoring....................................................................................................107
2.6.2.6 Border Law Enforcement ............................................................................................................108
2.6.2.7 Licensing of Uses of the Childs Mountain Communications Site...........................................108
2.6.3 Goal: Visitor Services.............................................................................................................................108
2.6.3.1 Managing Visitor Access ..............................................................................................................108
xi
2.6.3.2 Administering Hunt Program......................................................................................................108
2.6.3.2.1 Desert Bighorn Sheep..............................................................................................................108
2.6.3.2.2 Mule Deer .................................................................................................................................109
2.6.3.2.3 Small Game...............................................................................................................................109
2.6.3.2.4 Predators ..................................................................................................................................109
2.6.3.3 Implementing Leave-No-Trace Program ..................................................................................109
2.6.3.4 Provision of Environmental Education ......................................................................................109
2.6.3.5 Interpretation of Natural Resources..........................................................................................109
2.6.3.6 Managing Visitor Camping ..........................................................................................................110
2.6.3.7 Pack and Saddle Stock Restrictions ...........................................................................................110
2.6.4 Goal: Cultural Resources Management ...............................................................................................110
2.6.4.1 General Provisions........................................................................................................................110
2.6.4.2 Onsite Interpretation ....................................................................................................................111
2.6.4.3 Site Stabilization/Patrols ..............................................................................................................111
2.6.4.4 Inventory .......................................................................................................................................111
2.6.4.5 Training..........................................................................................................................................111
2.6.5 Staffing.....................................................................................................................................................111
3.0 THE AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT.....................................................................................................119
3.1 GEOGRAPHIC/ECOSYSTEM SETTING.............................................................................................119
3.2 LAND STATUS..........................................................................................................................................123
3.3 THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.......................................................................................................123
3.3.1 Climate.....................................................................................................................................................123
3.3.2 Air Quality ...............................................................................................................................................126
3.3.3 Soils ..........................................................................................................................................................126
3.4 WATER RESOURCES.............................................................................................................................127
3.4.1 Natural Surface Waters .........................................................................................................................127
3.4.2 Developed Waters ..................................................................................................................................128
3.4.3 Ground Water .........................................................................................................................................132
3.5 REFUGE HABITAT AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES.....................................................................133
3.5.1 Biotic Community and Biodiversity......................................................................................................133
3.5.2 Plant Resources......................................................................................................................................134
3.5.3 Mammals .................................................................................................................................................137
3.5.3.1 Federal Endangered Species.......................................................................................................137
3.5.3.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) ...............................................137
3.5.3.1.1.1 Status and Trends .............................................................................................................138
3.5.3.1.1.2 Habitat Requirements ......................................................................................................140
3.5.3.1.1.2.1 Topography.................................................................................................................140
3.5.3.1.1.2.2 Vegetation ...................................................................................................................140
3.5.3.1.1.2.3 Water ...........................................................................................................................141
3.5.3.1.1.3 Decimating Factors...........................................................................................................142
3.5.3.1.1.3.1 Hunting........................................................................................................................143
3.5.3.1.1.3.2 Domestic Livestock....................................................................................................143
3.5.3.1.1.3.3 Livestock-borne Disease...........................................................................................143
3.5.3.1.1.3.4 Predation.....................................................................................................................144
3.5.3.1.1.3.5 Habitat Loss, Fragmentation, and other Anthropogenic Factors......................145
3.5.3.1.1.3.6 Long-Term Climate Change.....................................................................................147
3.5.3.1.1.4 Recovery Objectives..........................................................................................................148
xii
3.5.3.1.2 Lesser Long-Nosed Bat (Leptonycteris curasoae yerbabuenae) .....................................148
3.5.3.1.2.1 Distribution ........................................................................................................................149
3.5.3.1.2.2 Habitat Requirements......................................................................................................149
3.5.3.1.2.3 Reasons for listing.............................................................................................................149
3.5.3.1.2.4 Recovery Efforts ...............................................................................................................150
3.5.3.2 Species of Conservation Concern...............................................................................................150
3.5.3.2.1 California Leaf-nosed Bat (Macrotus californicus) ...........................................................150
3.5.3.3 Desert Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) ...............................................................150
3.5.3.3.1 Status and Trends.....................................................................................................................151
3.5.3.3.2 Habitat Requirements .............................................................................................................153
3.5.3.3.3 Decimating Factors ..................................................................................................................155
3.5.3.3.3.1 Pre-European Contact......................................................................................................155
3.5.3.3.3.2 Hunting..............................................................................................................................156
3.5.3.3.3.3 Domestic Livestock ...........................................................................................................156
3.5.3.3.3.4 Livestock-borne Disease ..................................................................................................157
3.5.3.3.3.5 Predation ............................................................................................................................158
3.5.3.3.3.6 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation....................................................................................159
3.5.3.3.3.7 Long-Term Climate Change............................................................................................159
3.5.3.3.4 Management Strategies...........................................................................................................160
3.5.4 Birds.........................................................................................................................................................161
3.5.4.1 Species of Conservation Concern................................................................................................162
3.5.4.1.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl (Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum) .........................162
3.5.4.1.1.1 Distribution ........................................................................................................................162
3.5.4.1.1.2 Habitat Requirements ......................................................................................................163
3.5.4.1.2 Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus).........................................................................163
3.5.4.1.3 Le Conte’s Thrasher (Toxostoma lecontei) .........................................................................164
3.5.5 Reptiles and Amphibians.......................................................................................................................164
3.5.5.1 Species of Conservation Concern................................................................................................165
3.5.5.1.1 Arizona Chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus) ...........................................................................165
3.5.5.1.1.1 Distribution and Habitat ..................................................................................................165
3.5.5.1.1.2 Food Requirements...........................................................................................................165
3.5.5.1.2 Desert Tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) ...................................................................................165
3.5.5.1.2.1 Distribution and Habitat..................................................................................................165
3.5.5.1.2.2 Food Requirements ..........................................................................................................166
3.5.5.1.2.3 Abundance.........................................................................................................................166
3.5.5.1.2.4 Threats...............................................................................................................................166
3.5.5.1.3 Flat-tailed Horned Lizard (Pyrynosoma mcalli)................................................................166
3.5.6 Invertebrates ..........................................................................................................................................166
3.6 PUBLIC USE FACILITIES ....................................................................................................................167
3.7 SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREAS......................................................................................................168
3.7.1 National Register of Historic Places District......................................................................................168
3.7.2 Cabeza Prieta Wilderness.....................................................................................................................168
3.8 OTHER USES ............................................................................................................................................169
3.8.1 Military Facilities and Artifacts ............................................................................................................169
3.8.2 Childs Mountain Military and FAA Surveillance Operations...........................................................169
3.9 CULTURAL RESOURCES.....................................................................................................................170
3.9.1 Cultural Resource Inventories ..............................................................................................................170
3.9.2 Prehistoric and Historic Data................................................................................................................170
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3.10 REGIONAL ECONOMIC SETTING .....................................................................................................171
3.10.1 Surrounding Jurisdictions.................................................................................................................171
3.10.1.1 Pima County..................................................................................................................................171
3.10.1.2 Yuma County.................................................................................................................................171
3.10.1.3 Tohono O’odham Nation ...............................................................................................................172
3.10.1.4 Mexico ............................................................................................................................................172
3.10.2 Population...........................................................................................................................................172
3.10.3 Employment and Income ..................................................................................................................174
3.10.4 Transportation ...................................................................................................................................177
4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES.............................................................................................179
4.1 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.................................................................................................................179
4.1.1 Climate.....................................................................................................................................................179
4.1.2 Air Quality ...............................................................................................................................................179
4.1.3 Soils ..........................................................................................................................................................180
4.1.3.1 Soil Disturbance and Erosion ......................................................................................................180
4.1.3.1.1 Off-Road Vehicle Use...............................................................................................................180
4.1.3.1.2 On-Road and On-Trail Vehicle Use ............................................................................................182
4.1.3.1.3 Construction ..............................................................................................................................183
4.1.3.2 Cryptogammic Soil ........................................................................................................................184
4.1.4 Water Resources ....................................................................................................................................186
4.1.4.1 Surface Water ...............................................................................................................................186
4.1.4.2 Ground Water................................................................................................................................188
4.2 HABITAT AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES ........................................................................................189
4.2.1 Biotic Community and Biodiversity......................................................................................................189
4.2.2 Plant Resources......................................................................................................................................193
4.2.3 Mammals .................................................................................................................................................194
4.2.3.1 Federal Threatened and Endangered Species..........................................................................195
4.2.3.1.1 Sonoran Pronghorn ..................................................................................................................195
4.2.3.1.2 Lesser Long-Nosed Bat...........................................................................................................198
4.2.3.2 Species of Conservation Concern................................................................................................199
4.2.3.2.1 California Leaf-Nosed Bat ......................................................................................................199
4.2.3.3 Desert Bighorn Sheep...................................................................................................................199
4.2.4 Birds.........................................................................................................................................................203
4.2.4.1 Species of Conservation Concern................................................................................................203
4.2.4.1.1 Cactus Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl ............................................................................................203
4.2.4.1.2 Other Species of Conservation Concern................................................................................204
4.2.5 Reptiles and Amphibians.......................................................................................................................205
4.2.6 Invertebrates ..........................................................................................................................................205
4.2.7 Desert Pupfish ........................................................................................................................................205
4.3 SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREAS......................................................................................................207
4.3.1 Natural Register of Historic Places .....................................................................................................207
4.3.2 Wilderness...............................................................................................................................................207
4.3.2.1 Military Training ...........................................................................................................................208
4.3.2.2 Border Law Enforcement ............................................................................................................208
4.3.2.3 Refuge Management.....................................................................................................................210
4.3.2.4 Public Use......................................................................................................................................214
4.4 CHILDS MOUNTAIN COMMUNICATIONS SITE...........................................................................216
xiv
4.5 CULTURAL RESOURCES......................................................................................................................217
4.6 SOCIOECONOMIC RESOURCES.........................................................................................................218
4.6.1 Economic Consequences ........................................................................................................................218
4.6.1.1 Refuge Operations........................................................................................................................218
4.6.1.2 Visitor Expenditures....................................................................................................................221
4.6.2 Social Consequences ...............................................................................................................................223
4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE ..............................................................................................................225
4.8 SUMMARY OF CUMULATIVE IMPACTS OF PLAN ACTIONS AND OTHER,
REASONABLY FORESEEABLE RELATED ACTIVITIES.........................................................................226
Appendix A Legal, Policy and Administrative Guidelines and Other Special Considerations…….……227
Appendix B Interagency Agreements………………………….…………………………………………...231
Appendix C Public and Agency Comments……...………………………………………………………..243
Appendix D Response to Public and Agency Comments…………………………………………………..367
Appendix E Plant Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge…………………......…..385
Appendix F Minimum Requirements Analyses for Refuge Management Actions in Cabeza
Prieta National Wildlife Refuge Designated Wilderness………………………….………...395
Appendix G Compatibility Determinations for Public Use at the Cabeza Prieta National
Wildlife Refuge……………………………………………………….........................................463
Appendix H Bird Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge……………...………481
Appendix I Mammal Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge…………………489
Appendix J Amphibian and Reptile Species Present at Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge…491
Appendix K Social Impact Analysis Report……………………………………………………...………493
Appendix L Regional Economic Effects of Current and Proposed Management Alternatives for
Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge………………………………………………….......533
Appendix M Comprehensive Conservation Plan Management Goals, Objectives and Strategies.......…557
Appendix N Intra-Service Biological Opinion for the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge
Comprehensive Conservation Plan, Arizona…………………………………………………589
Appendix O ReferencesCited……………………………………………………………...............................657
Appendix P List of Preparers………………………………………………………………..…………���…668
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Sonoran Pronghorn Populations Estimates, 1992-2004……………..………………………..44
Table 2.2 Developed Waters in Sonoran Pronghorn Habitat……………………………………………45
Table 2.3 Population Estimates from Cabeza Prieta Desert Bighorn Sheep Surveys, 1993-2005……51
Table 2.4 Refuge Staffing, Alternative 1, No Action……….…………………………………………….67
Table 2.5 Refuge Staffing, Alternative 2…………………………………………………………………..77
Table 2.6 Refuge Staffing, Alternative 3…………………………………………………………………..88
Table 2.7 Refuge Staffing, Alternative 4 (Preferred alternative)…………………………………….101
Table 2.8 Refuge Staffing, Alternative 5…………………………………………………………………111
Table 2.9 Summary comparison of the management alternatives organized by
planning issues identified in scoping…………………………………………………………..113
Table 3.1 Developed Waters of Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge…………���………………131
Table 3.2 Sonoran pronghorn numbers 1992-2002……………………………………………………...139
Table 3.3 Sonoran pronghorn fawn recruitment and rainfall…………………………………………..142
Table 3.4 Population estimates for desert bighorn sheep………………………………………………153
Table 3.5 Regional and Local Population Estimates……………………………………………………173
Table 3.6 Population Composition for the Year 2000……………………………………………………174
Table 3.7 Employment Status in 2000……………………………………………………………………175
Table 3:8 Regional and Local Employment Occupation for the Year 2000……………………………175
Table 3.9 Regional and Local Income and Poverty Status for the Year 2000………………………...176
Table 4.1 Summary of Refuge staffing and budgeting economic impacts…………………………….220
Table 4.2 Summary of economic effects of refuge visitor spending……………………………………223
Table 4.3 Summary of Cumulative Impacts of Plan Actions and Other, Reasonably Foreseeable
Related Activities……………………………………………………………………………….226
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Geographic Setting of Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge………………………………1
Figure 1.2 Gila/Salt/Verde Ecosystem and the Refuge……………………………………………………..4
Figure 1.3 Refuge Map……………………………………………………………………………………...…7
Figure 1.4 Refuge Wilderness……………………………………………………………………………….15
Figure 1.5 Refuge Fixed Wing Low Altitude Overflight Corridors……..……………………………….19
Figure 1.6 Adjacent Government Lands…………...……………………………………���……………….39
Figure 2.1 Developed Waters………………………………………………………………………………..47
Figure 2.2 Developed Waters………………………………………………………………………………..59
Figure 2.3 Administrative Trails, Baseline Conditions……………………………………………………63
Figure 2.4 Administrative Trails, Alternative 2……………………………………………………………73
Figure 2.5 Administrative Trails, Alternative 3……………………………………………………………83
Figure 2.6 Administrative Trails, Alternative 4……………..…………………………………………..…95
Figure 3.1 Refuge Map with Terrain Features and Administrative Boundaries………………………121
Figure 3.2 Average Monthly Precipitation at Ajo………………………………………………………...124
Figure 3.3 Annual Rainfall at Ajo…………...…���………………………………………………………..125
Figure 3.4 Monthly High and Low Temperatures, Averaged for Ajo, Tacna and Welton…………….125
Figure 3.5 Developed Waters……………….…...…………………………………………………………129
Figure 3.6 Sonoran Desert Ecosystem in Arizona………………………………………………………..133
Figure 3.7 Refuge Vegetation Communities………………………...……………………………………135
Figure 4.1 Areas of Disturbance Related to Illegal Border Crossing…………………………………..191
xvii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED
ABC Arizona Border Control Initiative
ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
AFS Air Force Station
AGFD Arizona Game and Fish Department
AGL above ground level
AIDTT Arizona Interagency Desert Tortoise Team
ARPA Archeological Resource Protection Act of 1979
BANN Border Anti-Narcotics Network
BEC Barry M. Goldwater Executive Committee
BLM United States Bureau of Land Management
BMGR Barry M. Goldwater Range
BMP Best Management Practices
CBP United States Customs and Border Protection
CBP-BP United States Customs and Border Protection, Border Patrol
CCP Comprehensive Conservation Plan
CEQ Council for Environmental Quality
dB decibel
DEA United States Drug Enforcement Agency
DEIS Draft Environmental Impact Statement
DoD United States Department of Defense
EA Environmental Assessment
EHD Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EOD Explosive Ordnance Disposal
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact
FWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service
GIS Geographic Information System
GSV Gila, Salt, Verde Rivers Ecosystem Region
IEC Inter-agency Executive Committee
LNT leave-no-trace wilderness camping and travel
LSL Length of Stay Limit
MOA Memorandum of Agreement
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MRA Minimum Requirements Analysis
MSL mean sea level
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
NCTC National Conservation Training Center
NGO non-governmental organization
NOI Notice of Intent
NPS National Park Service
NWR National Wildlife Refuge
NWRS National Wildlife Refuge System
OMB Office of Management and Budget
OPCNM Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument
PVA Population Viability Analysis
Service United States Fish and Wildlife Service
SUP Special Use Permit
UDA Undocumented Alien
USAF United States Air Force
xviii
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USDI United States Department of the Interior
USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service
USGS United States Geological Survey
USMC United States Marine Corps
WSP Wilderness Stewardship Plan
WTI Weapons & Tactics Instructor
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION, PURPOSE OF AND NEED
FOR ACTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This document integrates a Comprehensive
Conservation Plan (CCP), Wilderness
Stewardship Plan (WSP) and Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS) for Cabeza Prieta
National Wildlife Refuge (NWR). See figure 1.1
for a map showing the location of the refuge in
southwestern Arizona. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (Service) is required to prepare
Comprehensive Conservation Plans by the
National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement
Act (P.L. 105-57) passed in 1997. An
Environmental Assessment (EA) or EIS is
required for any major federal action by the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
(NEPA). The CCP describes the desired future
condition of the refuge and provides long-range
guidance and management direction for the refuge. The EIS describes a range of alternatives, including the
preferred alternative, for managing the refuge and the expected environmental consequences of each
alternative.
1.1.1 Goals of Refuge Planning
The goals of refuge comprehensive conservation planning as defined by policy at 602 FW1 (1.5) follow:
A. To ensure that wildlife comes first in the National Wildlife Refuge System.
B. To ensure that the Service manages the Refuge System for the conservation of fish, wildlife, plants, and
their habitats and that refuge management achieves Service policies, the Refuge System mission, and the
purposes for which the refuge was established.
C. To ensure that the administration of the Refuge System contributes to the conservation of the ecological
integrity of each refuge, the Refuge System, and to the structure and function of the ecosystems of the
United States.
D. To ensure opportunities to participate in the refuge planning process are available to other Service
programs; Federal, State, and local agencies; tribal governments; conservation organizations; adjacent
landowners; and the public.
E. To provide a basis for adaptive management by monitoring progress, evaluating plan implementation,
and updating refuge plans accordingly.
F. To promote efficiency, effectiveness, continuity, and national consistency in refuge management.
G. To help ensure consistent System wide consideration of the six priority public uses -- hunting, fishing,
wildlife observation and photography, and environmental education and interpretation-- established by the
Refuge Administration Act and to ensure that these uses receive enhanced consideration over general
public uses in the Refuge System.
H. To ensure that the Service preserves the wilderness character of refuge lands (2000).
2
1.2 PURPOSE AND NEED FOR PLAN ACTIONS
The refuge plays a critical role in the recovery and protection of rare and sensitive species such as the
desert bighorn sheep and the federally endangered Sonoran pronghorn, as well as the conservation of a
diversity of desert wildlife within the Sonoran Desert. Cabeza Prieta NWR, which contains the largest
refuge wilderness outside of Alaska, presents issues related to appropriate levels of intervention for wildlife
management in designated wilderness that have national significance for the Service. A CCP establishes
refuge Goals, Objectives and Management Strategies. These planned actions are all designed to assist the
refuge in achieving its formal purposes and the Mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System. This
document proposes the implementation of a wide array of actions that lead to achievement of such purposes
and mission.
Cabeza Prieta NWR was:
. . . reserved and set apart for the conservation and development of natural wildlife
resources, and for the protection and improvement of public grazing lands and natural
forage resources... Provided, however, that all the forage resources in excess of that
required to maintain a balanced wildlife population within this range or preserve should be
available for livestock... (Executive Order 8038 January 25, 1939)
Title III of the Arizona Desert Wilderness Act of 19901 supplemented the refuge purposes with an
additional refuge purpose; the protection of the wilderness resource on 325,270 hectares (803,418 acres) in
accordance with the Wilderness Act of 1964.
A CCP also sets guidelines for management of refuge resources, describes the desired outcomes for the
next 15 years, and encourages refuge management in concert with an overall ecosystem approach. The CCP
development process provides a forum for public participation relative to the type, extent, and compatibility
of uses on refuges. As a majority of the refuge is designated wilderness, this plan addresses administrative
needs for wilderness and serves as the refuge’s Wilderness Stewardship Plan.
1This purpose has been added as “supplemental to”, or in addition to, the original purposes when the Arizona Desert
Wilderness Act of 1990 was passed and signed into law.
3
1.3 NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE SYSTEM MISSION, GOALS AND GUIDING
PRINCIPLES
The National Wildlife Refuge System is the only Federally-administered system of lands managed
primarily for the conservation of fish, wildlife, and plant resources. The Refuge System mission is a
derivative of the Service mission. The Refuge System mission was clarified and formalized in October 1997,
by passage of the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act (P.L. 105-57).
The Act amends the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 in a manner that provides
an “Organic Act” in that it designates the fundamental guiding principles of the National Wildlife Refuge
System. It ensures that the Refuge System is effectively managed as a national system of lands, waters, and
interests for the protection and conservation of our nation’s wildlife resources. The Act states first and
foremost that the mission of the Refuge System be focused on wildlife conservation, defining the Mission of
the Refuge System as follows:
“To administer a national network of lands and waters for the conservation, management,
and where appropriate, restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their
habitats within the United States for the benefit of present and future generations of
Americans.”
The Act gives guidance to the Secretary of the Interior in the overall management of the Refuge System.
Besides a strong conservation mandate for the Refuge System, the Act’s other main components include:
a requirement that the Secretary of the Interior maintain the biological integrity, diversity and
environmental health (ecological integrity) of the Refuge System,
the establishment of six priority recreational uses that should be considered for integration into refuge
programs if determined compatible with refuge purposes and Refuge System mission,
a new process for determining compatible uses of refuges that integrates public review, and
a requirement for preparing comprehensive conservation plans.
The Goals of the Refuge System are defined in the Fish and Wildlife Service Manual (601 FW).
To preserve, restore, and enhance in their natural ecosystems (when practicable) all species of
animals and plants that are endangered or threatened with becoming endangered.
To perpetuate the migratory bird resource.
To preserve a natural diversity and abundance of fauna and flora on refuge lands.
To provide an understanding and appreciation of fish and wildlife ecology and the human role in the
environment, and to provide refuge visitors with high quality, safe, wholesome, and enjoyable
recreational experiences oriented toward wildlife to the extent these activities are compatible with
the purposes for which the refuge was established.
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1.4 ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO CONSERVATION AND THE GILA/SALT/VERDE
ECOSYSTEM
The Service has adopted an ecosystem approach to fish
and wildlife conservation to recognize the
interdependence of all elements of the system, increase
cooperation among Service programs, and increase
partnerships to achieve conservation goals.
The Service identified and mapped 53 ecosystem units
throughout the United States by grouping watersheds.
Ecosystem Teams were established and directed to
develop plans for each unit that describe ecological
resources, issues relevant to the resources, and
conservation strategies. The Gila/Salt/Verde Ecosystem
(GSV) is one of the nine ecosystem units within the
Southwest Region. It is named for three major
watersheds located in southern Arizona and western
New Mexico. Cabeza Prieta NWR is located within the
GSV Ecosystem. See figure 1.2 for a map depicting the
extent of the GSV and the refuge’s location therein.
Other units of the National Wildlife Refuge System
within the GSV include: Kofa, San Bernardino, Leslie
Canyon and Buenos Aires.
The diversity of the GSV Ecosystem required
developing objectives and strategies for three different systems (Mountain, Grassland, and Desert).
Objectives for the desert ecosystem are described under Objective 3. Cabeza Prieta NWR is charged with
accomplishing certain action items under the second strategy of that objective through partnerships with
other agencies, organizations, and individuals in the area. To the greatest degree feasible, these action items
are incorporated into the refuge management alternatives described below in Chapter 2. Strategy 2 of
Objective 3 of the GSV Ecosystem plan follows.
Objective 3: Protect, maintain, and restore Sonoran Desert ecosystems
Strategy 2: Protect, maintain, and restore ecosystem function for terrestrial habitats including Federally
listed, candidate, and state listed species.
Action Item 1: Gather information on habitat use (and role of free water) and disturbances to
Sonoran pronghorn through telemetry, behavioral, and habitat studies.
Action Item 2: Complete range wide Sonoran pronghorn surveys over six-year period to establish a
trend for recovery purposes.
Action Item 3: Upgrade Geographic Information System (GIS) hardware and complete GIS data
bank for pronghorn range.
Action Item 4: Initiate and design a comprehensive strategic regional plan for the area represented
by the International Sonoran Desert Alliance (ISDA) which pulls together individual management
plans.
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Action Item 5: Clean up the abandoned military station on Childs Mountain.
Action Item 6: Consolidate communications sites on Childs Mountain to reduce the disturbed area.
Action Item 7: Determine presence and genetics of obligate rock dwelling reptiles to investigate
effects of isolated desert mountain ranges.
Action Item 8: Initiate pilot study to determine genetics of isolated bands of bighorn sheep to
determine degree of isolation for disease and transplant implications.
Action Item 9: Establish an interagency interpretive site in Ajo to cover area of ISDA concern.
Action Item 10: Locate and establish wildlife corridors that will link the protected areas of Organ
Pipe Cactus National Monument (OPCNM) and Cabeza Prieta NWR with the core area of the
Pinacate Biosphere Reserve. Reduce and mitigate wildlife barriers. Identify major invading exotic
plant species.
Action Item 11: Support desert pupfish maintenance and habitat restoration on National Park
Service lands and investigate feasibility of secondary populations on adjacent refuge lands (USFWS
1994).
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1.5 HISTORY OF REFUGE ESTABLISHMENT, ACQUISITION AND MANAGEMENT
1.5.1 The Game Range
The Cabeza Prieta NWR was originally established as a “Game Range” by Executive Order 8038 signed by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 25, 1939. This Range was established primarily to assist in the
recovery of the desert bighorn sheep, and partially in response to public demand generated by the Boy
Scouts of America, Arizona Game Protective Association, and the Audubon Society. Throughout the earlier
part of the 20th Century desert bighorn sheep populations continued to dwindle, despite legal protection. In
the early and mid 1930s, staff of the U.S. Biological Survey; National Park Service (NPS); State of Arizona;
and Mexican Government Department Forests, Fish and Game conducted surveys of Southwestern
Arizona. These surveys recommended establishment of a game range or preserve to protect the natural
resources of the Cabeza Prieta area (and other areas in southwestern Arizona) for protection of the desert
bighorn sheep (Taylor 1935, McDougall 1935, and Pinkley 1935). See figure 1.3 for a map of the refuge.
Given the trend of decreasing desert bighorn sheep populations and public interest in conserving the
species, active management to foster increased sheep numbers was seen as necessary. A strategy involving
water structure development and active management of the rocky, arid sierras and intermittent drainage
areas was implemented for species recovery throughout their historic range in Arizona. Kennedy,
researching the status of desert bighorn sheep on the Kofa and Cabeza Prieta National Game Ranges,
determined that developed waters and natural water sources contributed to desert bighorn sheep
population growth on the Cabeza Prieta National Game Range during the 1950s (1958).
Between its establishment in 1939 and 1975, the Game Range was jointly administered by the Bureau of
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (now the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) and the Bureau of Land Management
(BLM).
1.5.2 Military Lands Withdrawal
A series of four executive orders signed by President
Franklin Roosevelt and two public land orders signed
by the Secretary of Agriculture between September 5,
1941 and March 16, 1943 withdrew a block of land
totaling 1,124,546 hectares (2,777,628 acres) for military
flight training needs occasioned by World War II. Most
of the airspace above Cabeza Prieta Game Range was
included and active bombing started. During this time
grazing, mining, and most refuge activities were
curtailed for safety reasons. Most management studies
had to be done by air or in the extreme eastern portion,
which was not withdrawn. The bombing and aerial
gunnery range was deactivated in 1946, but was
reactivated in 1951 to serve training needs occasioned
by the Korean Conflict. The military range has been maintained in use for military training since that time
through a series of administrative and legislative actions.
Air Force F-16 fliying over the refuge
USAF Photo
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8
9
The Military Lands Withdrawal Act of 1999 (P.L. 106-65), the most recent action renewing the military
lands withdrawal, did not include lands of Cabeza Prieta NWR within the BMGR. Airspace over the refuge,
however, remains included within the BMGR, as does ground instrumentation used to monitor military
aircraft. The Military Lands Withdrawal Act of 1999 also provides that upgrades to ground instrumentation
on the refuge are allowed, so long as they “create similar or less impact than the existing ground
instrumentation permitted by the Arizona Desert Wilderness Act of 1990.” A memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) between the Department of the Air Force, the Department of the Navy (for the
Marine Corps) and the Department of the Interior (for the Service) stipulates mutually agreed upon
limitations of use. The MOU was signed in 1994, and was specifically authorized in the Act to facilitate
governance of military use of the ground and airspace over the refuge wilderness.
1.5.3 National Wildlife Refuge Administration Act
The passage of the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 opened many refuges to
public recreation. Shortly after that, Cabeza Prieta NWR was opened to desert bighorn sheep hunting.
Harvest levels are reestablished every three years based on aerial population surveys. Permit numbers
have fluctuated from one in 1980 to seven in recent years.
1.5.4 From Game Range to National Wildlife Refuge
Public Land Order 5493 of March 21, 1975, amended the original Executive Order (8039), gave sole
jurisdiction to the Service, and changed the name of the Game Range to Cabeza Prieta NWR. The refuge
took over management of the grazing allotments on the refuge at this time. Although by this time refuge
staff had become concerned about the effects of grazing on desert bighorn sheep habitat, the existing leases
were not immediately terminated.
Subsequent to the land order, the Game Range Bill amendments to the National Wildlife Refuge
Administration Act (P.L. 94-223, 90 Stat. 199 or “The Act of Feb. 27, 1976") affirmed the Secretary of the
Interior’s (i.e., the Service’s) responsibility to protect the integrity of the former Cabeza Prieta Game Range
as a part of the National Wildlife Refuge System and the integrity of the original purposes for which the
refuge was established. Under this law, all grazing leases issued by the BLM under their administration of
the land were honored by the Service. Upon the expiration of each such lease the Service reviewed the lease
and determined whether or not to renew it. The Act also prohibits the divestiture of lands within the
National Wildlife Refuge System by the Secretary of the Interior without the express permission of
Congress.
1.5.5 Grazing History
There were as many as six grazing allotments operating at one time on the Range. Grazing began as early
as 1919 and came under the jurisdiction of the BLM when the Range was established in 1939. The enabling
legislation specified that all forage resources in excess of that required to maintain a balanced wildlife
population within the range would be available to livestock.
Most grazing occurred on the eastern portion of the Range where shallow wells could be dug. During the
period of federal jurisdiction a total of seven ranchers held permits to graze livestock on the land that
10
became the refuge. The earliest permittees were Tom Childs and Jeff Cameron. Childs ranched about 100
head of cattle. Charlie Bell took over Child’s lease in the 1930s and had a permit to graze 400 goats prior to
the area becoming a game range. When the Game Range was established, goats and sheep were banned but
Bell continued to run cattle. Benjamin Parra also obtained a permit for 100 head of cattle in 1940. Childs,
Bell, and Parra lost their permits when the military withdrew lands for active bombing, but enforcement
was lax. Childs and Bell continued to run cattle at their own risk. Alton Netherlin bought Parra’s cattle in
1942 and leased the area around Papago Well, running as many as 700 head. Angel Monreal had a permit to
graze 80-100 head but records do not indicate dates for his lease. Jim Havins ran a small herd in the area of
Papago Well in the 1940s. Havins was asked to remove all structures around Papago Well in 1965, while
Cameron was allowed to renew his lease until 1981. Cameron ran 154 head of cattle in 1964, and 150 head in
1970 (with up to 1,500 cows additionally brought in for short terms). When the refuge took over grazing
management in 1975 Cameron’s permit was set at 129 head. Since the Cameron permit expired in 1981
there has been no legal grazing on the refuge.
As early as 1946, refuge staff began to notice the impact livestock were having on wildlife forage. They
observed that desert bighorn sheep were using the lower elevations in summer, feeding on ironwood beans
and saguaro pulp. These plants were probably supplying much needed moisture during the dry season.
Managers recommended stopping grazing to reduce competition for limited forage resources, as the cattle
also used this forage.
A study commissioned in 1965 to determine the effect of grazing and wildlife competition noted “abusive use
of perennial shrubs and other plants important to wildlife” but stopped short of recommending that grazing
be discontinued (Harper and Wiseman 1965). In 1977 the Sonoran pronghorn recovery team recommended
that grazing leases on the refuge be terminated to end a perceived displacement of pronghorn from suitable
habitat by cattle (Phelps, 1977). When the refuge took over grazing permits in 1975, they offered to continue
Cameron’s lease under conditions that would permit the habitat to recover. The permit would be renewed
for 1-3 years out of ten for a period of 60 days at a time. Cameron rejected the offer, arguing that the
conditions were not economically feasible.
Congress then asked the Service to study the effects of grazing on the refuge. The Service initiated the
study in 1983 in conjunction with the BLM (Cabeza Prieta NWR 1983). Permanent vegetation transects
were set up on the old Cameron allotment to document recovery when cattle were removed. The BLM also
set up another study on grazed land east of the refuge boundary to study competition with Sonoran
pronghorn. The study showed 50 percent of a cow’s spring diet was globe mallow, and their summer and fall
diet was composed mostly of mesquite. It further concluded that little competition occurred between cattle
and Sonoran pronghorn because cattle graze and pronghorn browse. Refuge biologists challenged this
finding, arguing that strict classifications of browser and grazer were not accurate descriptions of the actual
feeding habits of cattle and pronghorn.
In 1992, the Arizona Nature Conservancy conducted a vegetation impacts study on OPCNM after grazing
was discontinued there (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992). Noted increases in vegetation cover were influenced
by unusual rainfall during the study years. Interestingly, rodent abundance declined and pocket mice in
particular disappeared. However, in one study area, bannertail kangaroo rats returned after being absent
the previous year. Their return was attributed to an increase in vegetation cover after removal of livestock.
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1.5.6 Trespass Livestock History
Since refuge establishment, trespass cattle, both from adjacent grazing leases on BLM lands to the east and
from Mexico, have been a continuing problem. A boundary fence was built on the east side in 1980, reducing
trespass from the BLM lands. The largest problem came from the Gray Ranch, whose grazing lease was
within OPCNM, adjacent to the refuge. Although their lease was for 1,050 head, refuge staff estimated
there was three times that many. The refuge took the family to court in1965 to settle this dispute. The
family was given one year to remove their livestock, but it wasn’t until the last Gray brother died in 1976
that all the cattle were removed.
Feral burros and wild horses from Mexico were also a major problem. Burros and horses selectively browse
woody vegetation in riparian corridors, girdling paloverde and other trees that form important habitat. In
1944, over 100 horses and 125 burros were documented on the refuge in one day. The situation improved
when fear of hoof and mouth disease prompted construction of 36 kilometers (22 miles) of border fence
between 1948 and 1949. Rare sightings continued into the 1960s, but none in recent years, other than
occasional burro tracks seen at Tule well.
Domestic goats, both as trespass livestock on the refuge and as livestock on ranches or farms near the
refuge, are problematic to wild desert bighorn sheep. Goats provide a host for the larval stage of the
parasitic bot fly. The bot fly larvae also parasitize desert bighorn sheep. In desert bighorn sheep the larvae
cause chronic sinusitis, a debilitating, and often lethal, condition. Many sheep on the refuge suffer from
chronic sinusitis, introduced by domestic goats on or near the refuge. Chronic sinusitis is a decimating
factor to the refuge’s desert bighorn sheep population.
1.5.7 Mining History
Many mines in northern Sonora and southern Arizona
were developed during Spanish rule, but no such activity
appears to have taken place on the refuge. The gold rush
of 1849 led prospectors to cross the area on El Camino del
Diablo, an ancient trail that passed through the southern
part of the refuge. This original trail system, more a
braided corridor of multiple paths than a single trail, is
distinct from the modern refuge access road that shares its
name and general location. A second wave occurred when
gold was discovered in the Colorado Valley in the 1860s.
Miners’ graves are landmarks along the route.
The Game Range was left open to mining when it was
established. Military withdrawal in the 1940s temporarily
stopped all mining activity. The exact number of claims extant at that time is unknown. The Game Range
listed 17 unpatented and one patented claim in 1971 (USDI, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 1971).
The Bureau of Mines speculated that modern survey techniques might produce mineral potential and a
study was mandated in 1979. Wilderness designation in 1990 closed future mineral explorations. Today, the
only current claim is the non-patented San Antonio Mica Mine that produced mica for the Phelps Dodge
Company in Ajo.
San Antonio Mica Mine USFWS Photo
12
Mining has left its legacy in the form of numerous shafts, tunnels, water tanks, and other debris
surrounding old mine sites. The remains now present complex issues for the refuge. They negatively impact
wilderness character but may deserve protection as historic artifacts. Some structures may now provide
habitat for some wildlife species, such as endangered bats, but may also pose a danger to other wildlife and
humans.
1.5.8 The Endangered Species Act (ESA) and Sonoran
Pronghorn
Sonoran pronghorn were one of the first species declared
endangered. They were included in the first endangered species
legislation, the Endangered Species Preservation Act of October
15, 1966, which published a list that included the Sonoran
pronghorn on March 8, 1967. They were also included in Appendix
D of the Endangered Species Conservation Act, August 25, 1970,
and again under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. This act
directed the Service to prepare recovery plans for all species
declared threatened or endangered. Cabeza Prieta NWR was
given the lead for recovery of the Sonoran pronghorn in 1988, thus
elevating its status as a refuge management priority. The original
recovery plan was completed in 1982 with the last revision
occurring in 1998. Recovery plans were guided by a core working
group until 1998 when a formal recovery team was established.
In 2001, a federal court remanded the 1998 Final Revised Sonoran
Pronghorn Recovery Plan to the Service with instructions to reconsider two areas of the 1998 plan that the
court found to be contrary to the Endangered Species Act. Specifically, the court required the Service to
establish:
(1) objective measurable criteria, which, when met, would result in a determination that the pronghorn
may be removed from the list of endangered species or, if such criteria are not practicable, an
explanation of that conclusion and
(2) estimates of the time required to carry out those measures needed to achieve the plan’s goal and to
achieve intermediate steps toward that goal where practicable, or if such estimates are not practicable,
an explanation of that conclusion.
A supplement and amendment to the 1998 Recovery Plan, providing the required information, was
published in 2003.
(drawing by Bonnie Swarbrick)
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1.5.9 Wilderness Designation
In 1974, 337,449 hectares (833,500 acres) of the refuge were proposed to be included as part of the National
Wilderness Preservation System (Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources). The proposal
excluded approximately 14,975 hectares (37,000 acres) along the southern boundary known as the Tule Well
exclusion, and a 183 meter (600 foot) corridor along El Camino del Diablo and the Christmas Pass Road.
The proposal included adding the 32,375 hectare (80,000 acre) area known as Tinajas Altas to the refuge and
designating 29,421 hectares (72,700 acres) of the parcel as wilderness. Congress directed that the Service
manage all areas proposed for wilderness as de facto wilderness pending study and final designation.
A BLM study prior to 1990 indicated that a majority of the Tinajas Altas area had been impacted by surface
military training and no longer possessed high or threatened cultural, wildlife, scenic or botanical resource
values. Tinajas Altas was removed from the 1990 final wilderness proposal due to this degradation. The final
proposal included the Tule Well Exclusion, and narrowed the travel corridors to 61 meters (200 feet),
resulting in a wilderness proposal of 325,133 hectares (803,418 acres).
The Arizona Desert Wilderness Act of 1990 (HR 2570 Title 3) designated about 93 percent of the refuge, or
325,133 hectares (803,418 acres) as wilderness (figure 1.4). This designation provides a supplemental (i.e.,
additional) refuge purpose. The refuge’s wildlife management responsibilities remain unchanged, but must
be implemented within the context of legal requirements spelled out in the Wilderness Act of 1964. While
the Wilderness Act does not prevent activities essential to the refuge’s purpose, it does affect the manner in
which these activities occur. For example, a minimum requirements analysis (MRA) is required to
demonstrate that management activities are necessary and appropriate within wilderness. Permanent roads
are prohibited. Temporary roads, use of motor vehicles, motorized equipment, landing of aircraft, other
forms of mechanical transport, and structures and installations are also prohibited, except as minimally
required to administer the area as wilderness. Additionally, wilderness designation calls for expanded
monitoring requirements on the effects of public visitation.
The Arizona Desert Wilderness Act of 1990 provided two specific provisions relating to Cabeza Prieta for
military activities and law enforcement border activities. The Act reads:
Nothing in this title including the designation as wilderness of lands within the Cabeza Prieta
NWR, shall be construed as–
(1) precluding or otherwise affecting continued low-level over flights by military aircraft over such
refuge, or the maintenance of existing associated ground instrumentation...”
and
(2) precluding or otherwise affecting continued border operations by the Immigration and
Naturalization Service, the Drug Enforcement Administration, or the United States Customs
Service within such refuge [now Department of Homeland Security and its bureaus],
[both] in accordance with any applicable interagency agreements in effect on the date of enactment
of this Act
The Act also allows the Secretaries of these agencies to enter into new agreements compatible with refuge
purposes and in accordance with laws applicable to the Refuge System.
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1.6 LEGAL AND POLICY GUIDANCE
Administration of refuge lands is guided by federal laws, by the mission and goals of the Refuge System,
and by policy, Executive Orders, and international treaties. Short descriptions of the most important
mandates and policies affecting this planning process for Cabeza Prieta NWR follow. Additional legal
mandates can be found in Appendix A.
1.6.1 The National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee), as
amended, by the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 (H.R. 1420, 105th
Congress)
This law is the “organic act” for the National Wildlife Refuge System. The Act amends portions of the
National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 and the Refuge Recreation Act, and gives the
force of law to Executive Order 12996.
The Act clarifies that conservation of wildlife and its habitats is the first priority of the National
Wildlife Refuge System.
The Act unifies the Refuge System, calling for each refuge to be managed to fulfill the mission of
the Refuge System, as well as specific purposes for which that refuge was established, and directing
that each refuge shall be managed in a manner that maintains the biological integrity, diversity and
environmental health (ecological integrity) of the Refuge System.
The Act establishes the legitimacy and appropriateness of six wildlife-dependent recreational uses
of the Refuge System when they are determined to be compatible: hunting, fishing, wildlife
observation, wildlife photography, environmental education and interpretation.
These priority public uses shall receive enhanced consideration over other public uses in refuge
planning and management. The following general hierarchy between refuge activities and public
uses will apply: Priority 1 - activities necessary to fulfill the refuge purposes and the Refuge System
mission; Priority 2 - provide opportunities for wildlife-dependent recreational uses, when
determined to be compatible. All other public uses will be a lower priority.
Compatibility was more clearly defined as a determination that the use would not materially
interfere with or detract from the fulfillment of the mission of the Refuge System or purposes of the
refuge based on the sound professional judgment of the refuge manager. Sound professional
judgment is a finding, determination, or decision that is consistent with the principles of sound fish
and wildlife management and administration, available science and resources, and applicable laws.
The Act also provides that Comprehensive Conservation Plans shall be completed for all refuge
units within 15 years from the date of enactment.
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16
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1.6.2 Wilderness Act of 1964 (16 U.S.C. 1131-1136)
The Statement of Policy of the Wilderness Act reads:
In order to assure that an increasing population, accompanied by expanding settlement and
growing mechanization, does not occupy and modify all areas within the United States and
its possessions, leaving no lands designated for preservation and protection in their natural
condition, it is hereby declared to be the policy of the Congress to secure for the American
people of present and future generations the benefits of an enduring resource of
wilderness. For this purpose there is hereby established a National Wilderness
Preservation System to be composed of Federally owned areas designated by Congress as
“wilderness areas” and these shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the
American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use and
enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas, the
preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of
information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness; and no federal lands shall be
designated as “wilderness areas” except as provided for in this Act or by a subsequent Act.
(Sec. 2 (a)).
The Act defines wilderness as
. . . an area where the earth and community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a
visitor who does not remain. An area of wilderness is further defined to mean in this Act an area of
undeveloped Federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, wi