Administration of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 Annual Report January 1, 1999 to December 31, 1999 and January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2000

              Administration of the
Marine Mammal
Protection Act of 1972
Annual Report
January 1, 1999 to December 31, 1999 and January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2000
i
Administration of the
Marine Mammal
Protection Act of 1972
Annual Report
January 1, 1999 to December 31, 1999 and January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2000
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division
Washington, D.C. 20240
ii
iii
Table of Contents
List of Acronyms .................................................iv
Introduction................................................... 1
Authority..................................................... 1
Species List................................................... 1
Summary of the Program for 1999 and 2000............................... 2
Appropriations................................................ 2
Marine Mammal Protection Act Expenditures........................... 2
Endangered Species Act Expenditures................................ 2
Outer Continental Shelf Operations and Environmental Studies............. 3
Research and Development........................................ 4
Enforcement.................................................. 18
Permits and Registrations........................................ 21
Permit Activities in 1999......................................... 21
Scientific Research Permits...................................... 21
Public Display Permits.......................................... 21
Enhancement Permits.......................................... 22
Registered Agent/Tannery Permits................................. 22
Polar Bear Import Trophy Permits................................. 22
Permit Activities in 2000......................................... 22
Scientific Research Permits...................................... 22
Public Display Permits. ........................................ 23
Registered Agent/Tannery Permits................................. 23
Polar Bear Import Trophy Permits................................. 23
International Activities.......................................... 24
U.S.-Russia Environmental Agreement: Marine Mammal Project............ 24
Status Reports for 1999 and 2000.................................... 26
Stock Assessments.............................................. 26
Pacific Walrus................................................. 26
Northern Sea Otter............................................. 29
Polar Bear.................................................... 30
Incidental, Small Take During Oil and Gas Operations..................... 33
Marking, Tagging, and Reporting Program............................ 34
Sea Otter-Southern............................................. 42
Sea Otter-Northern (Washington State Population)....................... 45
West Indian Manatee............................................ 46
Hawaiian Monk Seal and Other Marine Mammal Activitieson Pacific Islands..... 51
iv
List of Acronyms
1973 Agreement - 1973 International
Agreement on the Conservation of Polar
Bears
ABSC - Alaska Biological Science Center,
USGS
Act - Marine Mammal Protection Act of
1972
ADFG - Alaska Department of Fish and
Game
ANC - Alaska Nanuuq Commission
ASOC - Alaska Sea Otter Commission
BBNA - Briston Bay Native Association
BPXA - BP Exploration (Alaska), Inc.
CDFG - California Department of Fish
and Game
CFR - Code of Federal Regulations
CITES - Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
Corps - United States Army Corps of
Engineers
CSC - California Science Center
Department - Department of the Interior
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid
ESA - Endangered Species Act of 1973,
as amended
EVOS - Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
EWC - Eskimo Walrus Commission
FCSC - Florida Caribbean Science
Center, USGS
FDEP - Florida Department of
Environmental Protection
FDNR - Florida Department of Natural
Resources
FFWCC - Florida Fish and Wildlife
Conservation Commission
FLIR - forward-looking infrared
imagery
FMP - Florida Marine Patrol
FMRI - Florida Marine Research
Institute
FY - Fiscal Year(s)
GDNR - Georgia Department of
Natural Resources
GIS - Geographic Information System
HCH - hexachlorocyclohexane
IGC - Inuvialuit Game Council
IPCoMM - Indigenous Peoples Council
on Marine Mammals
K - carrying capacity
LOA - Letter of Authorization
MIPS - Manatee Individual
Photoidentification System
MMC - Marine Mammal Commission
MML - Mote Marine Laboratory
mtDNA - mitochondrial
Deoxyribonucleic acid
MTRP - Marking, Tagging, and Report-ing
Program
NAVSTA ROOS RDS - United States
Naval Station, Roosevelt Roads, Puerto
Rico
NMFS - National Marine Fisheries
Service
NMML - National Marine Mammal
Laboratory
NSB - North Slope Borough
NVPP - Nearshore Vertebrate Predator
Project
NWHC - National Wildlife Health
Center
NWR - National Wildlife Refuge
PBR - potential biological removal
PCB - polychlorinated biphenyls
PIT - passive integrated transponder
ppm - parts per million
PRDNR - Puerto Rico Department of
Natural Resources
PTT - platform transmitter terminals
QA/QC - quality assurance/quality
control
SAR - stock assessment report
Service - United States Fish and
Wildlife Service
SFWMD - South Florida Water
Management District
SNI - San Nicolas Island
TASSC - The Alaska Sea Otter and
Steller Sea Lion Commission
TDRs - time-depth recorders
TTINWR - Ten Thousand Islands
National Wildlife Refuge
UHF - ultra-high frequency
UMMH - Chukotka Union of Marine
Mammal Hunters
USCG - United States Coast Guard
USGS/BRD - United States Geological
Survey, Biological Resources Discipline
VHF - very-high frequency
WERC - Western Ecological Research
Center, USGS
WHMP - Walrus Harvest Monitoring
Project
1
Introduction
* The dugong is listed as endangered throughout its entire historic range except when it occurs in the United States.
AUTHORITY
The passage of the Marine Mammal
Protection Act of 1972, hereafter
referred to as the Act or MMPA, gave
the Department of the Interior
(Department) responsibility for
manatees, polar bears, walruses, sea and
marine otters, and dugong. Within the
Department, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (Service) is the primary agency
responsible for managing these marine
mammals and for enforcing the
moratorium on taking and importing
marine mammals and marine mammal
parts. During 1999 and 2000, the
Biological Resources Discipline
(formerly the Biological Resources
Division) of the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS/BRD) was responsible for
conducting marine mammal research.
The Service administers requests for
waiving the moratorium and for the
transfer of management authority to
States, issues permits, enforces
provisions of the Act, and publishes rules
and regulations to manage marine
mammals. The Service also
cooperates with the States, and
participates in international activities
and agreements. In addition, the Service
lists and delists species as endangered or
threatened and undertakes other
Endangered Species Act (ESA) related
responsibilities and maintains a close
working relationship with the Marine
Mammal Commission (MMC) and
its Committee of Scientific Advisors.
Prior to Fiscal Year 1994, the Service
conducted the marine mammal research
program.
Presently, the USGS/BRD has been
charged with that responsibility; the
Service closely coordinates with the
USGS/BRD on marine mammal
research needs.
During the two-year period of time
covered by this report, there were no
significant changes to the listed status
of any of the species of marine mammals
whose management is the Service’s
responsibility.
Species
Common Name Scientific Name
Marine Mammal
Protection Act
Endangered
Species Act
Polar bear Ursus maritimus Yes No
Sea otter-Alaska Enhydra lutris kenyoni Yes No
Sea otter-southern Enhydra lutris nereis Yes Threatened
Marine otter Lutra felina Yes Endangered
Walrus Odobenus rosmarus Yes No
Dugong Dugong dugon Yes Endangered*
West Indian manatee Trichechus manatus Yes Endangered
Amazonian manatee Trichechus inunguis Yes Endangered
West African manatee Trichechus senegalensis Yes Threatened
SPECIES LIST
Species List and Status of Marine Mammals Under Service Jurisdiction Under the Act and the ESA
2
Summary of the Program for 1999 and 2000
Appropriations
The Act’s funding authorization for the
Department occurs in Section 116(b).
Spending occurs on a Fiscal Year (FY)
basis. Calendar years 1999 and 2000
covered by this report overlap FYs
1999, 2000, and 2001. Funds (in $000)
authorized for these years, as well as
funds spent in FY 1999 and FY 2000, and
projected to be spent in FY 2001, are
presented.
Actual Actual Actual
Marine Mammal Protection Act Expenditures FY 99 FY 00 FY 01
USGS/BRD Research and Development
Alaska sea otter $ 325 $ 742 $ 749
Polar bear 335 414 533
Pacific walrus 50 80 250
Misc. marine mammals (including polar bear,
walrus, and sea otter) 100 112 120
Total USGS/BRD Research and Development $ 810 $1, 348 $1, 652
Management
Permit activities $ 195 $ 200 $ 205
Law enforcement activities 620 800 790
Other management activities 2, 008 2, 353 2, 353
Total Management $2, 823 $3, 353 $3, 348
MMPA Grand Total $3, 633 $4, 701 $5, 000
Endangered Species Act Expenditures
Section 6 (Grants-to-States)
California - sea otter $ 0 $ 0 $ 0
Florida - manatee 0 0 0
Georgia - manatee 26 26 26
Total Section 6 $ 26 $ 26 $ 26
Section 15 (USGS/BRD Research and Development)
Endangered/threatened otters $ 233 $ 290 $ 691
Manatee 456 533 347
Total USGS/BRD Research and Development $ 810 $ 823 $1, 038
Section 15 (Management)
Consultation1 $ 320 $ 320 $ 320
Recovery1 3522 5513 1, 0254
Hawaiian monk seal5 75 75 75
Total Management $ 747 $ 946 $1, 420
ESA Grand Total $1, 462 $1, 795 $2, 484
1 Funded under authority of the ESA. Includes funds for all endangered and threatended marine mammals for which the Service engages in consultation and
recovery activities.
2 In Fiscal Year 1999, $152,000 in special project funds is included in the “Manatee” total above in Section 15 (USGS/BRD Research and Development) and is
not included here.
3 In Fiscal Year 2000, funds shown include a $498,000 add-on for manatee protection zone enforcement and $53,000 for manatee special projects, whicle $62,500
in special project funds are included in the “Manatee” total above in Section 15 (USGS/BRD Research and Development) are not included here.
4 In Fiscal Year 2001, funds shown include a $1,000,000 add-on for manatee protection zone enforcement and $25,000 for manatee special projects, while $98,000
in special project funds are included in the “Manatee” total above in Section 15 (USGS/BRD Research and Development) and are not included here.
5 Although the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) has primary responsibility for Hawaiian monk seals according to Section 3(12)(A)(i) of the Act,
almost the entire world population of the seals breeds and forages in the Hawaiian islands, Midway Atoll, and Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuges.
Funds reported are spent for monk seal activities on Refuge lands under aithority of the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (16
U.S.C. 668dd-668ee).
Authorized Expended Projected
Fiscal Year 1999 $10,296 $3,633 --
Fiscal Year 2000 $10,296 4,701 --
Fiscal Year 2000 $10,296 -- $5,000
3
Outer Continental Shelf Operations
and Environmental Studies
No activities were reported for either
year covered by this report.
4
Research and Development
Part of DOI’s responsibility in
implementing the MMPA is to monitor
the health of marine mammal
populations and to manage them in a way
that ensures they are maintained at their
optimum sustainable population. In order
to accomplish this, we conduct studies to
help us understand the potential impacts
to marine mammals of both natural
events and anthropogenic activities.
Information obtained in these studies
enables us to work with individuals and
industries that are operating in areas
occupied by marine mammals and to
develop and implement effective
management strategies. For example,
the oil and gas industry in Alaska has
regularly requested that we promulgate
regulations under Section 101(a)(5)(A)
to authorize the incidental, unintentional
taking of polar bears and Pacific walrus in
the course of industry activities.
Incidental take regulations provide an
opportunity for DOI to interact with
industry to minimize potential effects on
marine mammals. We conduct studies to
support the regulations, which can only
be promulgated if the Secretary finds
that the incidental taking has no more
that a negligible impact on the species.
Findings from these studies provide a
basis for improved future impact assess-ment
and mitigation. These studies,
many of which are specifically requested
and supported by industry, are described
below.
The USGS/BRD conducted research
under the Act during FYs 1999 and 2000
at several Centers and Field Stations.
The Alaska Biological Science Center
(ABSC) is responsible for polar bear,
walrus, and northern (i.e., Alaska) sea
otter research. The Western Ecological
Research Center (WERC), formerly the
California Science Center (CSC), is
responsible for work on southern sea ot-ters.
The Florida Caribbean
Science Center (FCSC) is responsible
for research on sirenians (manatees and
dugongs). The Division of Cooperative
Research administers additional research
at cooperative units across the country
funded by, and in support of, the needs of
the Service, other USGS/BRD
Research Centers, and other bureaus of
the Department.
For each project active during FY 1999
and 2000, the project title and summary,
followed by highlights of
accomplishments are given below by spe-cies.
Previous results and
accomplishments can be found in earlier
publications.
1. Polar bear
A. Project Title and Summary:
Mapping of high probability maternal
denning habitats of polar bears.
Polar bears give birth in dens of ice and
snow to protect their highly altricial
young. Disruption of the denning cycle
may result in mortality of their young.
In northern Alaska, terrestrial dens
occur within the Prudhoe Bay oilfield
and in other regions of the arctic coastal
plain under consideration for petroleum
exploration and extraction. Most
exploration and construction occurs
during the winter months when mater-nal
dens are occupied. Temporal and
spatial management of human activities
is necessary to avoid negative conse-quences
that may result from disturbing
maternal dens. While the chronology
of maternal dens is understood, habitat
considerations are not well known.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Many new polar bear dens have been
discovered in northern Alaska since this
project began in 1995. During 1999, data
were collected and used for digital map
adjustments and error checking. Final
ground truthing was completedin 1999.
Maps, documentation,and publications
were prepared during the year.
During 2000, we visited 25 den sites,
located previously by radiotelemetry, to
characterize physiognomy of known
denning locations.
Polar bear cubs
USFWS
High-resolution aerial photographs
(n=3000) were then searched for the
kinds of habitats recorded at actual
dens. We used characteristics of the ob-served
dens and aerial photos to identify
1782 km of bank habitats suitable for
denning. Bank habitats comprised 0.18
percent of our study area between the
Colville River and the Tamyariak River
in northern Alaska. A final digital map,
which identified 82 percent of bluff
denning habitat in this region, and the
documentation of how the map was de-veloped
will be published in the journal
ARCTIC. This product will help
minimize potential for disruptions of
maternal dens by winter petroleum
exploration activities.
In the summer of 2001, we continued to
accrue data related to polar bear den
characteristics by visiting those addi-tional
dens and incorporating their
characteristics into our database. As
human activities in the Arctic expand,
these new data will help us update and
revise information on the distribution of
probable den habitat.
FY 1999 $30,000
FY 2000 $0
FY 2001 $20,000
5
B. Project Title and Summary:
Population ecology of polar bears in
western Alaska and adjacent portions of
Russia.
Polar bears are seasonal residents of
the Bering and Chukchi Seas during ice
bound months of November through
May. However, knowledge of seasonal
use patterns and densities of polar
bears in the Bering and Chukchi Seas
was largely unknown. Polar bears were
captured throughout the Bering and
Chukchi Seas adjacent to the Alaskan
and Russian coastlines in the spring and
adult females were fitted with satellite
telemetry collars that provided regular
position locations using overflying
satellite technology. Data from these
satellite instrumented polar bears
indicate that the Chukchi Sea
population is shared with Russia. These
data are being used to delineate the
population bounds and define the
seasonal limits of polar bear
distributions in the Bering and Chukchi
Seas.
This effort will also determine the
degree of discreteness between the
adjacent populations. Detailed
movement data currently available is
limited to adult females as male polar
bears cannot be fitted with neck collars.
A pilot study of subcutaneous
implantation of satellite transmitters
with percutaneous antennae was
conducted to determine the feasibility of
using this technology to test the
assumption that adult male polar bears
have similar movement patterns as adult
females.
Polar bears have long life spans, delayed
maturity, small litter sizes, and extended
reproductive intervals. These population
characteristics indicate that any
increases in direct mortality of polar
bears may not be compensated by
increased productivity of polar bears. We
are in the process of building new
simulation models that will help
understand the degree to which
industrial activities and other
anthropogenic influences may alter polar
bear survival and recruitment patterns.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
During the 2-year period, we finished a
new analysis of mark and recapture data
collected from polar bears over a 30+
year period.
This analysis provided us with the best
yet estimates of population size and trend
of polar bears in Alaska.
Knowledge of population size and trend
is necessary to manage anthropogenic
risks to polar bears. Despite capturing
over 1,025 females between 1967 and
1998, previously calculated estimates of
the size of the southern Beaufort Sea
population have been unreliable. We
improved estimates of numbers of polar
bears by modeling heterogeneity in
capture probability with covariates.
Important covariates referred to the
year of the study, age of the bear,
capture-effort, and geographic location.
Our best model suggested an increase
from around 500 females early in the
study to as many as 1,500 at the end
of the study. Assuming the increase in
numbers of males was comparable to
that recorded for females, this could
suggest a total population size of over
2,500 animals, many more than
previously hypothesized. The mean
coefficient of variation on estimates for
the last decade of the study was 0.16, the
smallest yet derived.
Despite the significant improvements in
estimates provided by this new
estimator, we recommend a conservative
approach to management of polar bears
in the southern Beaufort Sea. The
estimated growth rate of the population
of 1.035 is near the maximum that seems
possible for a hunted polar bear
population and should be viewed
cautiously. Likewise, simulation
studies suggested there might be a small
positive bias in when the data set
contains significant heterogeneity.
Cautious harvest management,
therefore, still is advised. Collection of
a more intensive southern Beaufort Sea
mark-recapture data set is necessary in
order to further refine our population
estimates.
FY 1999 $150,000
FY 2000 $319,000
FY 2001 $300,000
C. Program Title and Summary:
Detection of denning polar bears with
forward-looking infrared (FLIR)
imagery.
Polar bears construct maternal dens of
ice and snow throughout their
circumpolar range. In the Beaufort Sea
region of northern Alaska, most dens
have been found on the flat coastal plain.
Hydrocarbon extraction is now occurring
or planned along 100 miles of the
Beaufort Sea coastline. If development
occurs in the National Petroleum
Reserve in the future, the scope of
development could include up to 2/3 of
the northern coastal region of Alaska.
These human activities can disturb polar
bears and are a potential threat to
denning polar bears.
While numbers of humans and their
activities have increased in northern
Alaska, numbers of denning females
present along the coast also have
increased. Satellite-monitored
platform transmitter terminals (PTTs)
will transmit daily through the
predenning and denning period.
Transmissions will convey location,
temperature, and activity level of the
bear, allowing us to ascertain the timing
and location of den entry. The
effectiveness of FLIR to detect denned
bears will be tested December-
February, by which time dens will be
well established and covered by a thick
snow layer. A series of overflights
will be recorded on videotape for each
den located. Overflights will differ in
altitude, speed, view angle, and ambient
conditions. A panel of observers, then,
will test visibility of bears in dens, and
we will record whether they successfully
see the dens. After den abandonment
in spring, we will return to each den to
record habitat features that could
influence detectability of the den by
FLIR.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
In both years, final testing of the ability
of FLIR to detect polar bears in their
dens was hampered by poor weather.
We hypothesized that clear and cold
weather early in the winter when the
snow pack is thin should be ideal for
detection of the heat signature of a den.
Unfortunately, these weather conditions
were not available during the winter of
either year.
During the winter of 1999-2000, we knew
the locations of seven maternal polar
bears dens. Snow, sleet, fog, and even
rain were the predominant
weather conditions we faced while
testing the ability of FLIR to detect
dens under the snow. Moisture in the air
is one condition that we know
prohibits transmission of infrared
radiation, and hence, it was not
surprising that we detected only 3 of 7
known dens.
The winter of 2000-2001 carried forth
with the same kinds of weather
observed the previous year. We had
concluded from previous testing that
FLIR flights should be conducted early
in the winter, when snow depths are
lower. Also, in early winter the sun is
always below the horizon, preventing
solar warming from adding competing
hot targets to the otherwise cold
landscape. Unfortunately, during
3 weeks of standby with a Bell 212
helicopter, the weather was neither good
enough to fly, nor good enough to test
FLIR.
6
However, in January, although we still
had low clouds and fog on most days,
conditions generally were better, and
there were a few days during which we
actually had clear, if not cold, air. Of
12 dens visited, we were able to detect
seven. We believe we may have detected
one other den; however, due to solar
warming, there were many warm targets
in the vicinity of the radio-collared bear,
and we cannot be sure that we assumed
correctly the heat signature to be the
heat signature of the den.
Final analyses of data collected is
scheduled to be performed at a future
workshop, and recommendations for use
of the FLIR system will be made in a
final report prepared thereafter. But,
even without detailed analyses three
conclusions are obvious: (1) FLIR
surveys must be performed as early
as possible in winter to minimize snow
depths over the dens; (2) clear and
preferably cold air conditions will always
provide superior viewing conditions with
FLIR; (3) and even a small amount of
solar exposure compromises the
detectability of dens with FLIR.
FY 1999 $100,000
FY 2000 $95,000
FY 2001 $160,000
D. Project Title and Summary:
Oil spill/polar bear interaction modeling.
The polar bear is the apical predator of
the arctic, and may be among the most
important indicators of general
ecosystem health. Polar bears are most
common near the continental shelf, an
area also rich in extractable
hydrocarbons. The goal of this project
is to estimate the number of polar bears
that might be oiled by a hypothetical spill
from the Liberty Oil Production Island
and sub-sea-floor pipeline in the central
Beaufort Sea.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
The relative probability distribution of
polar bears in Alaskan near-shore and
offshore waters will be presented in a
report summarizing the distribution and
its ramifications. Probability
distributions will be depicted as grid cell
densities and as a 2-dimensional surface
overlaying the arctic ocean with contours
of polar bear distribution. That surface
will be in the form of an ARC/Info GIS
coverage. An article for the refereed
journal Arctic was prepared describing
the method and results.
Because we are interested in the relative
probability of seeing any polar bear, not
just a radio-collared bear, we need an
accurate estimate of the sampling
fraction. Sampling fraction, the
proportion of the population observed
(by radio telemetry) during the study,
is calculated as the number of observed
animals divided by the population size.
Hence, accurate population estimates
are needed to calculate relative
probability distributions. Therefore, a
second product from this project was an
article submitted to the Canadian
Journal of Zoology describing the esti-mation
procedure we used to
determine population size. In addition,
the projection model was prepared (as
well as a manual for its use), and an
article describing its development and
results was submitted to Arctic.
In 2000, we used 10,913 reobservations
of 289 satellite radio-collared females to
estimate the distribution of polar bears
in the Beaufort Sea. We used 255
observations of 69 polar bears and 322
observations of 95 polar bears to
estimate the distribution of polar bears
in the Liberty study area in September
and October, respectively. We assumed
that other members of the population
moved similarly to females.
Oil spill footprints for October and
September, the times during which we
hypothesized effects of an oil-spill would
be worst, were estimated using real wind
and current data from 1980-1996. We
used ARC/Info software to calculate
overlap (numbers of bears oiled)
between oil-spill footprints and polar
bear grid-cell values. Numbers of bears
potentially oiled by a 5,912 barrel spill
ranged from 0 to 25 polar bears for open
water conditions, and from 0 to 61 polar
bears in autumnal mixed ice. Oil-spill
trajectories affected small numbers of
bears far more often than they affected
larger numbers of bears. Median
numbers of bears oiled by the 5,912
barrel spill in September and October
were 1 and 3 bears, respectively.
FY 1999 $55,000
FY 2000 $0
FY 2001 $53,000
2. Alaska sea otter
A. Project Title and Summary:
Processes structuring coastal marine
communities in Alaska.
Surveys of relative abundance and
distribution in Glacier Bay and Icy
Straits are in progress. Field work on
a study of sea otter foraging behavior
is underway and data management is in
progress. Annual field reports to Glacier
Bay Park on sea otter distribution and
food habits are available. Field work
was initiated in 1996 on sea otter diving
behavior using ultra-sonic transmitters
and time-depth recorders. Data from
diving studies are under management,
manipulation, and analysis.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Since 1995, the number of sea otters
in Glacier Bay has increased from 5 to
more than 500 animals. Most of this
growth resulted from immigration of
individuals outside the Park. Sea otter
distribution is limited to a few locations,
all in the lower portions of Glacier Bay,
and large areas throughout the Bay
do not contain persistent sea otter
populations.
In 1999, 14 of 21 time depth recorders
deployed were recovered. Also in
1999, studies began of the species
composition, abundance, and size class
distribution of intertidal clams and
urchins in Glacier Bay and Icy Straits.
In 2000 studies on the species
composition, density, and size class
distributions of intertidal clam
populations in and near Glacier Bay
were completed. A total of 85 intertidal
sites were sampled, including 12 sites
where sea otters have been present for
about 20 years, 14 sites where otters
have been present for about 10 years,
and 59 sites where otters are either
absent or in the process of re-colonizing.
We found mean clam densities in lower
Glacier Bay of about 95/m2, and about
10/m2 in the two upper arms. Where
sea otters have been present for one and
two decades, clam densities were about
10/m2 and 30/m2, respectively. Patterns
in estimates of clam biomass generally
followed density patterns, although
clam species preferred by sea otters
(Saxidomus and Protothaca) were
generally larger in Glacier Bay
compared to where sea otters have been
present for more than 20 years.
Sea otters are now well established in
limited areas of the lower portions of
Glacier Bay. It is likely that distribution
and numbers of sea otters will continue
to increase in Glacier Bay in the near
future. Sea otter diet consists primarily
of clams, mussels, urchins, and crabs,
but varies on relatively small spatial
scales. Glacier Bay supports large and
diverse populations of intertidal clams
that presently are largely unexploited
by sea otters. It is predictable that
the density and sizes of intertidal clam
populations will decline in response
to otter predation. This will result in
fewer opportunities for human harvest,
and will also result in ecosystem level
changes, as prey are modified for other
predators, such as octopus, sea stars,
fishes, birds, and mammals.
7
Sea otters will also modify benthic
habitats through excavation of sediments
required to extract burrowing fauna,
such as clams. Effects of sediment
disturbance by foraging sea otters are not
understood. Glacier Bay also supports
large populations of other preferred sea
otter prey, such as king and Dungeness
crabs, green sea urchins, and several
clam species that are commercially,
culturally, or ecologically important. As
the recolonization of the Bay by sea otters
continues, it is also likely that dramatic
changes will occur in the species
composition, abundance, and size class
composition of many components of the
near-shore marine ecosystem. Many of
the changes will occur as a direct result of
predation by sea otters. Other changes
will result from indirect or cascading
effects of sea otter foraging, such as
increasing kelp production and modified
prey availability for other near-shore
predators.
FY 2000 $210,000
FY 2001 $180,000
B. Project Title and Summary:
Assessment of sea otter population status
in Alaska.
With the exception of 13 small remnant
populations, sea otters were extirpated
from their historic range in the north
Pacific Ocean during the 18th and 19th
centuries. Since the beginning of the 20th
century, through protection and
reintroduction, sea otter populations have
increased in abundance and distribution
such that most of their range in Alaska,
with the exception of southeast Alaska,
is currently occupied. Although data
are incomplete, there is evidence of
increasing, stable, and declining sea
otter populations in different areas of the
Pacific.
The cause, magnitude, and geographic
extent of the declining populations are
unknown. Additionally, harvest levels of
sea otters for subsistence have increased
over the past 10 years. Population level
effect of the harvest at current levels are
unknown. Because sea otter populations
occur over vast and remote areas,
determining population status and trends
through traditional survey methods is
logistically difficult and fiscally expensive.
Two active study plans describe the
research under this program. One
research project includes estimating
sea otter activity time budgets (i.e., the
proportion of time an individual or
population allocates to foraging, resting,
or other behaviors). The method
employed consists of deploying time-depth
recorders (TDRs) on individual
otters. These devices record and store
depths at 2 second intervals. The second
active study plan involves monitoring
environmental contaminants in the
nearshore marine ecosystem in the
central and western Aleutian Islands.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Work continued on methods to assess
sea otter population status, and on the
collection and archival of biological
specimens acquired in cooperation
with the Service and the Alaska Sea
Otter Commission (ASOC), now the
Alaska Sea Otter and Steller Sea Lion
Commission) to be used in population
assessment studies. In 1999 work
continued on estimating activity time
budgets from time depth recorders
(TDR’s) in southeast Alaska. We
were successful in recovering 14 of 21
instruments deployed in 1999 and data
analysis of the 16 TDR’s recovered to
date is under way. In 2000 we initiated a
cooperative program with the Monterey
Bay Aquarium to apply the TDR
technology to the threatened California
sea otter population.
Following is a brief, preliminary
summary of the TDR results.
Theoretically, the proportion of time
an individual spends foraging is
inversely related to food availability,
thus providing a measure of population
status relative to food resources. For
the 13 animals thus far analyzed, we
have identified a total of 230,209 dives
of three different types: zero-bottom
time, traveling, and foraging. Each dive
type has different attributes such as
depth, duration, bottom time, and rate
of ascent and descent. Mean dive depth
of >105,000 foraging dives were 19.6
m (se=3.5) and mean maximum dive
depth was 60.5 m (se=6.3) among the
13 individuals. The minimum maximum
dive depth for an individual was 35.5
m and the maximum dive depth for an
individual was 100 m. On average,
male sea otters made fewer dives than
females (5,004 males vs > 10,719 for
females), but dove deeper, on average,
than females
( 33.6 m males vs 12.0 m for females).
In terms of activity time budgets, both
male and female sea otters spent about
55 percent of their time resting and 12
percent traveling. However, male sea
otters spent only 24 percent of their time
foraging, compared to 31 percent for
females. Male sea otters spent 8 percent
of their time in other activities (zero-bottom
time dives) compared to only 2
percent for females.
In 2000, work was completed on
applying molecular genetics (mtDNA) to
discriminate sea otter populations
throughout the species range. Work on
evaluation of the effects of population
bottlenecks on sea otter genetics was
completed. Work was also completed
on a project to distinguish levels of
population structuring within the Alaska
subspecies of sea otters.
We also completed work in 2000 on
life history plasticity and population
regulation in sea otters. We contrasted
body condition, and age-specific
reproduction and mortality between
a growing population of sea otters at
Kodiak Island and a high-density, near-equilibrium
population at Amchitka
Island, Alaska. Sixty-two percent of
the preweaning pup losses at Amchitka
occurred within a month of
parturition and 79 percent occurred
within two months. Postweaning
survival was also low at Amchitka as
only 18 percent of instrumented pups
were known to be alive one year after
mother-pup separation. Adult survival
rates appeared similar at Amchitka and
Kodiak. Factors affecting survival early
in life thus are a primary demographic
mechanisms of population regulation in
sea otters. By maintaining uniformly
high reproductive rates over time and
Sea otter
David Menke/USFWS
8
limiting investment in any particular
reproductive event, sea otters can
take advantage of unpredictable
environmental changes favorable to pup
survival. This strategy is consistent with
predictions of “bet-hedging” life history
models.
Publication completed 12/25/1999:
Scribner, K.M., J.L. Bodkin, B.E.
Ballachey, S.R. Fain, M.A. Cronin and
M. Sanchez. 1997. Population genetic
studies of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris):
A review & interpretation of available
data. Proceedings: Marine Mammal
Genetics Symposium, La Jolla, CA.
Sept., 1994.
Publication completed 4/1/1998: Bodkin,
J.L., B.E. Ballachey, M.A. Cronin & K.T.
Scribner. 1999. Population demographics
and genetic diversity in sea remnant
and translocated sea otter populations.
Conservation Biology 13(6) 1378-1385.
Presentation completed 12/4/1999:
Monson, Daniel, H., J. Watt, T. Gelatt,
J.L. Bodkin, J.A. Estes and D.B. Siniff.
1999. Estimating foraging time budgets
for sea otters from characteristics of
foraging behavior. 13th Beinnial Marine
Mammal Conference, Maui, Hawaii. 29
Nov.-3 Dec. 1999.
Presentation completed 12/1/1999:
Bodkin, James L., K.A. Kloecker
and A.M. Burdin. 1999. Fluctuating
asymmetry and genetic diversity in sea
otters. 13th Beinnial Marine Mammal
Conference, Maui, Hawaii. 29 Nov.-3
Dec. 1999.
Publication completed 10/1/1999:
Bodkin, J. L. and M.S. Udevitz. 1999.
An aerial survey method to estimate sea
otter abundance. in: Garner, G.W., S.C.
Amstrup, J.L. Laake, B.F.J. Manly, L.L.
McDonald, and D.G. Robertson, (eds.)
Marine mammal survey and assessment
methods. Balkema Press, Netherlands
pg. 13-26.
Publication completed 2/2/2000: Gorbics,
C and J.L. Bodkin. Stock Identity of
sea otters in Alaska. in press. Marine
Mammal Science.
Presentation completed 1/18/2000:
Lowry, L., D. DeMaster and J.L.
Bodkin. 2000. Status of marine mammals
populations in the Gulf of Alaska. 11th
annual Exxon Valdez oil spill symposium
18-19 January 2000, Anchorage, AK.
Dissertation completed 6/1/2000:
Fukuyama, A.K. 2000. The ecology of
bivalve communities in Prince William
Sound, Alaska: Influence of the Exxon
Valdez oil spill and predation by sea
otters. Doctoral dissertation, University
of Washington, Seattle.
Publication completed 10/1/2000: Mon-son,
D.H., D.F. Doak, B.E. Ballachey,
A. Johnson, and J.L. Bodkin. 2000.
Long-term impacts of the Exxon Valdez
oil spill on sea otters, assessed through
age-dependent mortality patterns. Pro-ceedings
National Academy of Sciences,
USA.97(12):6562-6567.
FY 1999 $60,000
FY 2000 $90,000
FY 2001 $120,000
C. Project Title and Summary:
Patterns and processes of population
change in selected nearshore vertebrate
predators.
The purpose of this study is to track the
recovery process of sea otters (Enhydra
lutris) in western Prince William
Sound through annual aerial surveys of
abundance and to monitor the abundance
and size distribution of a preferred
sea otter prey, the green sea urchin
(Stronglycentrotus droebachiensis).
Study History: This project began in
April 1999 with the approval of a 5-
year plan by the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
(EVOS) Trustee Council. The project
is an extension of Restoration Project
93043-2, designed to develop an aerial
survey method for sea otters in 1993,
and the Nearshore Vertebrate Predator
Project (NVPP), 95025 (SIS 5001228)
designed to assess recovery of the
nearshore ecosystem affected by the
Exxon Valdez oil spill.
This project supports an annual survey
of sea otter abundance in Prince William
Sound, population estimates from
intensive surveys in an oiled and unoiled
area and estimates of the density and
sizes of green sea urchins from those
same intensive study areas.
Sea otters and harlequin ducks occupy
an invertebrate-consuming trophic level
in the nearshore and are conspicuous
components of the nearshore ecosystem.
In 1995, the NVPP was initiated to
examine the status of recovery of
nearshore vertebrates (including sea
otters, harlequin ducks, river otters,
and pigeon guillemots), and to evaluate
possible causes for the apparent lack of
recovery. Results of the NVPP clearly
suggest that complete recovery has not
occurred for sea otters and harlequin
ducks.
This proposed work follows up on
the critical elements revealed by
the NVPP studies, in particular the
relation between population status
and oil contamination, and evaluation
of population status. In addition to
observations made directly on predator
species, as part of the NVPP, we have
observed an apparent response among
several invertebrates to reduced sea
otter densities. This finding represents
a shift in the ecological processes
structuring the nearshore community
and provides a unique opportunity to
test predictions related to sea otter
recovery and their prey. We also have
an opportunity to test the application of
this novel approach as a tool for
monitoring predators through prey
that may have broader ecological
applications.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
The otter population estimates for
Western Prince William Sound were
2,475 (se=381) in 1999 and 2,852
(se=440) in 1998. A single survey of
Western Prince William Sound and a
series of replicate aerial surveys were
completed at Knight and Montague
Islands in July 2000. Surveys of sea
urchin populations at Knight and
Montague Island were completed in
August 2000. In July 2000, we estimated
the Western Prince William Sound sea
otter population at 2,992 individuals
(se=480). We estimated population sizes
of 79 (se=6) at Northern Knight Island
and 544 (se=95) at Montague Island in
2000.
The significant increases we have
detected since 1993 in and around the
spill area continue to indicate progress
toward recovery of the EVOS injured
sea otter population. However, the lack
of a
concurrent increase around Northern
Knight Island through 2000, where sea
otter mortality was highest, indicate
that recovery may not be occurring
where oil spill effects were greatest.
Presentation completed 12/1/1999:
Bodkin, James L., K.A. Kloecker and
A.M. Burdin. 1999.
FY 1999 $95,000
FY 2000 $95,000
FY 2001 $95,000
D. Project Title and Summary:
Interactions between sea otters and
nearshore communities.
The sea otter provides one of the best
known examples of a keystone species.
This study has the following goals: (1)
to determine the relative importance
of sea otter predation in kelp forest
ecosystems across the northeast Pacific
Ocean; (2) to understand the breadth of
indirect effects of sea otter predation
in coastal ecosystems; and (3) to
document the effects of environmental
contaminants on sea otters, their prey,
9
and other elements of the coastal
ecosystems in which they live and
interact.
This project began in 1977 when biennial
surveys began of translocated northern
sea otters to Washington State. In
1989, surveys started being conducted
annually and with the cooperation of the
Washington Department of Fish and
Wildlife. The objective is to monitor
the abundance and distribution of the
Washington sea otter population to
provide data, which will allow a better
assessment of population status, and to
provide information on growth rates of
this population for comparison with
populations in California and Alaska.
Studies related to investigating
contaminants in mussels and fish
include monitoring sea otter populations
and kelp forest communities in this
Aleutian Islands effort. The rationale
for this focus are: (1) sea otters are a
known keystone species in kelp forest
ecosystems and have high public
visibility; (2) otter populations have
recently undergone a dramatic decline.
Sea otters compete with humans for
shellfish resources. These interactions
and conflicts are compounded by the
facts that shellfish stocks have declined
for reasons other than sea otter
predation and coastal marine ecosystems
are subject to a wide range of human
influences, in particular eutrophication
and contamination.
The data will also provide comparative
baseline information, which will be
extremely valuable in the event of an
environmental catastrophe, such as a
major oil spill in which a high level of
mortality can be expected.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Contaminant analyses have been
completed on fauna collected. Sea otters
have been monitored surrounding Adak
Island and other sites.
The findings from this research will be
used for the following purposes: (1) to
provide a model system for wildlife
managers and conservation biologists
illustrating the interactions between
species and ecosystems; (2) to help the
Service develop a working definition for
optimum sustainable population; and (3)
to assist various management agencies in
determining the source, distribution, and
effects of environmental contaminants
in coastal marine ecosystems of western
North America.
By using the fragmented distribution of
sea otter populations that resulted from
over-hunting during the Pacific maritime
fur trade and subsequent protection
of the species in the early 1900’s as a
natural experiment, we have been able
to show that sea otters have a wide
range of important effects on coastal
ecosystems. These include enhancement
of primary production, increased
competition among kelp species,
enhancement of coastal fish populations,
and population or behavioral effects on
a variety of other consumer species,
including gulls, sea ducks, and sea
stars. We have also provided evidence
suggesting that sea otter predation has
shaped the evolution of marine plant/
herbivore interactions in North Pacific
kelp forests.
Results obtained during the past two
years have documented the collapse
of kelp forest ecosystems following
the reduction of sea otter populations
by killer whale predation in western
Alaska. Our recent findings also suggest
localized contaminant inputs from sites
of historic or current military activity in
western Alaska, although the evidence
suggests that these inputs are not
responsible for the population declines.
Superimposed on these localized effects
is growing evidence for contaminant
inputs to western Alaska from Asia,
mainly in the form of DDT and its
various metabolites. While still not
conclusive, there is some recent evidence
that these materials may be transported
into western Alaska via migratory
seabirds. DDE levels in bald eagles
that specialize on seabird prey in this
region are sufficiently high to cause
reproductive suppression.
FY 1999 $170,000
FY 2000 $347,000
FY 2001 $354,000
3. Pacific walrus
A. Project Title and Summary:
Population trends of Pacific walrus.
Pacific walruses occur throughout the
Chukchi and Bering Seas and are
important to Native subsistence in
Alaska and Russia where thousands
of animals are harvested each year.
Reliable abundance estimates for walrus
are currently unavailable. Estimates of
the potential biological removal (PBR)
level for all marine mammal species are
required under a 1994 amendment to
the Act. PBR level estimates require
an estimate of population size with
estimable precision. The status of the
walrus population is poorly known, but
there are indications that the population
is currently declining from its most
recent peak in abundance in the 1980s.
Estimates of walrus population trends
are critical for effective management.
This study evaluates trends in the
walrus population through the
establishment of new surveys, evaluation
of past data collected from monitoring
programs in the U.S. and Russia, and
genetic studies to investigate potential
structuring in the walrus population.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Research planning and project
development was conducted. Field
work to develop capture and attachment
protocols for Pacific walrus were
conducted at Cape Peirce on Togiak
National Wildlife Refuge. Several types
of satellite transmitters were attached to
tusks and at-sea locations were obtained.
Satellite telemetry data from walrus
captured at Cape Peirce indicate a
feeding concentration area southwest of
the Cape. Russian remotely-sensed ice
data are being collected and formatted
by Russian cooperators. Ice images
of the Bering and Chukchi Seas were
processed.
A workshop was held in Anchorage
March 27 and 28, 2000, to discuss
potential approaches for conducting an
aerial survey of the Bering and Chukchi
Seas for walrus. Proceedings were
published in a Service technical report.
An analysis is scheduled to begin in FY
2001 of past haulout count data collected
by the Service from mid 1980 to the
present from Bristol Bay.
Publication completed: Proceedings of
a workshop concerning walrus survey
methods, Anchorage, Alaska, March
27-28, 2000. USFWS Technical Report
MMM00-2. 92 pp.
FY 1999 $5,000
FY 2000 $20,000
FY 2001 $115,000
Pacific walrus
USFWS
10
B. Project Title and Summary:
Pacific walrus telemetry studies.
The distribution of walruses is influenced
strongly by the seasonal distribution
of pack ice. Herds of mixed sex and
age classes occur at sea ice haulouts in
winter, primarily in the Anadyr Gulf,
St. Lawrence Island, and Bristol Bay
regions of the Bering Sea where breed-ing
and calving occurs. In spring, female
and young walruses migrate northward
with the retreat of sea ice to summer in
the Chukchi Sea. Adult males summer
primarily in the Bering Sea, using land
haulouts on the coasts of Russia and
Alaska.
Although these general patterns
are known, many aspects of their
distribution and movements are poorly
understood including their annual fidelity
to summering and wintering areas in
the Bering and Chukchi Seas, migration
routes, and within-season fidelity to local
haulouts sites. These studies investigate
the seasonal migration patterns, haulout
use, and foraging behavior of walruses.
This information will be used to identify
potentially separate segments of the
population for management purposes
and to aid in designing population and
behavioral studies.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Results from time-depth-recorder data
are in press with Marine Mammal Sci-ence.
Data were collected from four
adult animals in 1997 from Bristol Bay
and were used to identify dive behaviors
and activity of these animals. Analysis
of walrus movement data from satellite
transmitters deployed over the past five
years are underway and are expected
to be complete by the end of FY 2001.
Plans are being developed to deploy 12
satellite-transmitters in Russian waters
in the Gulf of Anadyr in July 2001 to
investigate the movement patters of
walruses from the hypothesized “Kresta”
group.
Publication in progress as of 2/7/2000:
Haulout fidelity and feeding areas of
male walruses in Bristol Bay, Alaska.
Publication completed 4/13/2001: Jay,
C.V., S.D. Farley, and G.W. Garner. in
press. Summer diving behavior of male
Pacific walrus in Bristol Bay, Alaska.
Marine Mammal Science 17:000-000.
Publication in progress as of 4/13/2001;
Jay, C.V., and G.W. Garner. submitted.
Frequency of location acquisitions from
a GPS-Argos satellite unit deployed on
Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus
divergens). Marine Mammal Science.
FY 1999 $40,000
FY 2000 $60,000
FY 2001 $135,000
C. Project Title and Summary:
Heavy metal contaminants in Pacific
walrus.
Anthropogenic pollutants such as heavy
metals are commonly found in Arctic
marine mammals. Subsistence hunting
of these animals may compromise the
health of users. The Pacific walrus
is a major Arctic subsistence species
with thousands harvested annually
throughout the Chukchi and Bering
Seas. Despite heavy dependence upon
walrus for subsistence, very little
published information exists concerning
potential health risks from ingesting
walrus. In addition to their significance
to Native subsistence, walrus are
ideal sentinel animals for monitoring
anthropogenic contamination in Arctic
ecosystems. They are apical benthic
predators specializing on bivalves, thus
their tissue heavy metal concentrations
are direct measures of benthic heavy
metal loading throughout the Chukchi
and Bering Seas. Because of age and sex
specific spatial segregation of the walrus
population for much of the year, tissues
from male walrus harvested in Bristol
Bay represent time-integrated sampling
of their residence in the Bering Sea,
whereas tissues from female and young
walrus represent exposures during their
summer residence in the Chukchi Sea
and winter residence in the Bering Sea.
This project will use walrus tissue
samples archived to: (1) make a
comparison between two analytical
lab techniques in the measurement of
metal levels in walrus tissues (National
Institute of Standards and Technology
traceable standards will be used as
the quality assurance/quality control
(QA/QC) benchmarks for all laboratory
procedures), and (2) provide a data set
of metal levels in walrus tissues which
will represent information gathered only
from samples collected and analyzed
under strict QA/QC guidelines.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Samples will be acquired from the
Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue Archival
Project (AMMTAP) and analyzed at the
USGS Geologic Division laboratory in
Denver, Colorado. Analysis has been
delayed due to unforseen delays in tissue
acquisition from AMMTAP.
Planned publications from this effort
include: (1) Heavy metal contaminants
in Pacific walruses, and (2) A comparison
of two analytical techniques for
determinations of specific heavy metals
and other elements in marine mammal
tissues.
FY 1999 $0
FY 2000 $0
D. Project Title and Summary:
Use of stable isotopes and heavy metals
in studies of Pacific walrus movements
and dietary habits.
Walrus foraging and nutritional ecology
are poorly understood. Continued
development of Arctic resources,
including offshore gas and oil leasing,
and the influence of human activities on
the Arctic ecosystem have underscored
the need to increase our understanding
of Arctic biology in order to provide
scientifically defensible
recommendations to resource managers.
The measurement of naturally occurring
stable isotopes of C, N, S, O, and H
has emerged as an invaluable tool for
the investigation of individual and
community ecology, as well as ecosystem
function.
More recently, stable isotope research in
ecology has expanded to include studies
of nutritional pathways and the tracking
of migratory wildlife. Researchers can
obtain a variety of time-integrated diet
estimates from tissues because
tissue-specific metabolic rates and
biochemical pathways cause them to
accumulate isotopes at different rates.
Tissues such as vibrissae or hair are
unique because any segment of these
will have an isotopic ratio representative
of the consumer’s diet just at the time
that particular segment was formed.
Thus, serial sections from these
tissues provide a continuous picture
of consumer diet over time, and if the
tissue’s growth rate is known, diet
may be related to seasonal events in
the animal’s life. Similarly, measures
of heavy metal concentrations along
the axis of growth in hard tissues
such as teeth can provide a history of
environmental or dietary exposure of
animals to metals such as Hg, Pb, Cu,
Zn, Sr, and Ca.
Furthermore, if isotopic and metal
profiles are known for geographic
regions of the animal’s environment,
measures of these profiles in tissues
can provide information on the animal’s
residency within geographic areas. The
purpose of this work is to explore the
use of stable isotope techniques and
measures of heavy metals as a tool for
studying large-scale movements and
dietary habits of walrus.
The stable isotope ratios of N and C
will be measured in vibrissae and blood
samples of free-ranging male walrus
in Bristol Bay and of females and their
calves in the northern Bering Sea.
11
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
About 30 tooth samples provided by the
Service were sectioned and analyzed by
Geological Survey of Canada for levels of
heavy metal isotopes. These preliminary
analyses indicate geographic segregation
among male and female animals and
between collection sites (harvest
villages) within sexes. This suggests
that a study based on a larger sample
collected over the entire Pacific walrus
range may provide information on walrus
group affiliation and the distribution of
potentially segregated segments of the
population.
FY 1999 $5,000
FY 2000 $500
FY 2001 $0
4. Miscellaneous marine mammals
A. Project Title and Summary:
Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue Archival
Project.
The cryogenic archival of environmental
specimens for retrospective analysis can
be an important resource in
environmental monitoring programs
and for both present and future
research on population genetics,
pathology, systematics, animal health,
and toxicology. The AMMTAP is a
joint project conducted by three U.S.
Government agencies to collect and
archive tissues from Alaska marine
mammals. The project emphasizes
the use of standardized sampling and
archival protocols, procedures that
minimize contamination of samples
during collection, and maintaining a
detailed record of sample history. Most
of the animals sampled are from Alaska
Native subsistence harvests; therefore,
the project requires cooperation
and collaboration with numerous
Alaska Native organizations and local
governmental agencies. Through
AMMTAP, samples are collected for
contaminant monitoring in the Marine
Mammal Health and Stranding Response
Program established by TITLE IV of
the Act.
In addition, the project has provided
samples and/or data for many research
programs, both inside and outside the
United States, on a variety of subjects.
These subjects include genetics research,
the circumpolar distribution of
chlorinated hydrocarbons in beluga
whales, baseline levels of trace elements
in tissues, the identification of arsenic
and mercury species in marine mammal
tissues, biomarker research, nutritional
studies, and studies on potential human
health effects of Alaska Native
subsistence foods.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Presentation completed 1/21/1999: Geoff
York. 1999. Alaska Marine Mammal
Tissue Archival Project. Focus on the
Future-Alaska Environmental Studies,
Seventh Alaska OCS Region, Minerals
Management Service Information
Transfer Meeting. Anchorage, AK
During 2000, AMMTAP samples were
obtained and archived from ringed
seal, bearded seal, harbour seal, sea
otter, polar bear, and bowhead whale.
Analysis of ringed seal and polar bear
tissues from the Barrow area were also
completed resulting in the submission of
a publication this spring.
FY 1999 $100,000
FY 2000 $112,000
FY 2001 $120,000
5. Manatee and dugong
A. Project Title and Summary:
Reproduction traits and population
dynamics of Florida manatees based on
photoidentification techniques.
Long-lived Florida manatees overwinter
at natural and man-made warm water
sites throughout Florida and in
southeastern Georgia. Manatee
aggregations reach hundreds of
individuals at some of these sites,
affording non-intrusive opportunities
to record life history observations and
photographically document numerous
individuals. Photographs and
accompanying observational histories
also are taken opportunistically at sites
frequented by manatees during the non-winter
months, and year-round in the
course of radio tracking research.
Documentation of individual manatees
through photoidentification, maintenance
of the existing long-term database (20+
years), and determination of survival
rates and other population parameters
from the database are all highest
priority actions in the implementation
of the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan.
Detailed knowledge of Florida manatee
life history and population dynamics
is necessary to develop adequate
population models.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
We continued documentation
of individual manatees through
photoidentification, maintenance of the
long-term database (20+ years), and
further development of the Manatee
Individual Photoidentification System
(MIPS), all high priority actions in the
implementation of the Florida Manatee
Recovery Plan. The database currently
includes specific identity and feature
description data, photographic images,
and over 22,000 sighting records and
reproductive histories for nearly 1,500
individual manatees.
The data have been converted and
are now queried through an Access
Database, which currently consists of 26
related tables. The MIPS program and
structure has been shared with the
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation
Commission, Florida Marine Research
Institute (FMRI), and the Mote Marine
Laboratory to assist in maintaining the
database on manatees frequenting the
southwest coast of Florida. We are also
planning to examine the reproductive
histories of individual manatees, if
differences in age of first reproduction
have fitness consequences, and if there
are regional differences in fitness.
FY 1999 $124,000
FY 2000 $124,000
FY 2001 $124,300
B. Project Title and Summary:
Use of strip-transect aerial surveys to
assess manatee population trends.
The Florida manatee is a large,
herbivorous marine mammal that
inhabits the coastal waters, estuaries,
and freshwater rivers of the
southeastern United States, primarily
in Florida. Rapid development and
increasing human activity in the
coastal zone threatens the long-term
existence of this endangered species.
The Sirenia Project initiated a long-term
radiotelemetry study of manatees
along the Atlantic coast of Florida and
Georgia in 1986 to gather information
on the species’ ecology, behavior, and life
history.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
The study has documented individual
variation in seasonal movement
patterns, migratory behavior in relation
to water temperature, areas of high
manatee use that vary seasonally,
strong site fidelity to warm-season
ranges across years, and diel movement
patterns. Manatee surveys have
typically not been designed to sample
quantified survey areas, or to produce
estimates of abundance. In 2000,
we collaborated with the Service, by
designing and analyzing results from
strip-transect aerial surveys of the Ten
Thousand Islands National Wildlife
Refuge (TTINWR). Our objective is to
determine if manatee density and
distribution in the nearshore waters of
the TTINWR and the Everglades
12
National Park change in response
to restoration of natural hydrologic
patterns in southwestern Florida. We
want to statistically compare pre- and
post-restoration indices of manatee
abundance using strip-transect surveys
in the TTINWR. We established 30
parallel transects, 1 km apart, with a
survey strip width of approximately 250
m. The estimates of number of manatees
in the study area ranged from 39 to 164,
or 0.28 to 1.16 per km5. The estimates
for survey dates with conditions ranked
as good to very good were 86 to 164. We
recommend that at least 6-8 surveys
be conducted within a 2-month period,
with good to excellent survey conditions
to minimize variation among surveys.
Surveys should be repeated every year
for a minimum of 4-5 years.
FY 1999 $80,000
FY 2000 $80,000
FY 2001 $80,000
C. Project Title and Summary:
Movement, spatial use patterns, and
habitat utilization of radiotagged West
Indian manatees along the Atlantic coast
of Florida and Georgia. Information on
movement patterns and habitat
requirements of Florida manatees
are needed by managers responsible
for protecting and recovering this
endangered marine mammal. The
Sirenia Project initiated a long-term
radiotelemetry study of manatees along
the Atlantic coast of Florida and Georgia
in 1986 and the field work has been
completed. The principal goals of this
Research Work Order are: (1) to describe
within-season movements and spatial
use patterns of radiotagged manatees,
including home range, core activity
areas, travel rates and diel movement
patterns; (2) to analyze manatee habitat
utilization and preference in two
geographic areas of importance to
manatees along Florida’s east coast;
(3) to examine the effects of season,
geographic area, age class, sex, and
female reproductive status on movement
parameters and habitat use; and (4)
to determine the accuracy of locations
generated from satellite-monitored radio
tags, based on field experiments.
1999 Activities/Accomplishments
A total of 83 manatees have been tracked
over this ten-year period using
conventional field-monitored VHF
radiotransmitters and Argos satellite-monitored
PTTs, resulting in over 60,000
locations between the Florida Keys
and southeast Georgia. A preliminary
analysis of manatee winter use of
thermal refugia along the Atlantic coast
was carried out in the third quarter of
1999 for presentation at a workshop on
manatees and the future of industrial
warm-water sources.
FY 1999 $60,000
FY 2000 $60,000
D. Project Title and Summary:
Manatee response to elimination of a
thermal refuge north of the species’
natural winter range.
Man-made warm water discharges
from industries such as power, paper,
and chemical-producing plants have
enabled manatees to extend their winter
range much further north than would be
expected for these endangered marine
mammals. The natural northern limit
of the manatee’s range in Florida is
thought to be the Sebastian River on
the Atlantic Coast, and the Crystal
River on the Gulf Coast. Manatees use
man-made sources of warm water, as
well as natural, warm water springs, to
maintain their body temperature during
the fall and winter, when ambient water
temperatures decline.
An interagency research team is
studying the Florida manatee’s response
to the loss of a significant warm water
discharge in northeastern Florida.
The Jefferson Smurfit Corp., a paper-products
manufacturer in Fernandina
Beach, Florida, recently modified
its discharge system on the Amelia
River. As a result, heated water will no
longer be available to manatees in this
region, as it has been in past winters.
The new system complies with water
quality standards regulated by the
Florida Department of Environmental
Protection (FDEP). Elimination of
artificial warm water sources north of
the manatee’s natural winter range is
generally viewed by resource managers
as a positive action. Manatees that
stay in colder regions because of the
availability of industrial effluents are
exposed to greater risk of hypothermia
during cold winter periods. It is
also possible that chronic exposure
to cold affects manatee metabolism,
reproductive success, and general
health. The results of this study will
assist resource managers in evaluating
the consequences of eliminating specific
warm water effluents.
1999 Activities/Accomplishments
Eight manatees were captured and
fitted with satellite-monitored radio
transmitter assemblies in March 1997, at
either the Jefferson Smurfit Corporation
effluent basin, or the Georgia Pacific
pulp plant in Brunswick, Georgia.
Two additional manatees, which
had originally been radio tagged at
Jefferson-Smurfit in 1996, were retagged
without capture, one in February 1997
and one in June 1997. Only one radio
tagged manatee has stayed in Brevard
County, using the thermal effluents of
two power plants in the upper Indian
River. Although the sample size is
small and the study is still ongoing, it
is clear that manatees have a strong
affinity for traditional warm water
refuges and do not necessarily respond
to the absence of a former refuge
by returning to more distant sites
further south, where warmer water is
assured. Some manatees may have
been born in the study region and
may not have developed the typical
manatee migratory pattern. Ongoing
development of population genetics
techniques may help to resolve this
question. It is also clear that secondary
warm water sites are more numerous
than was previously known, and should
not be underestimated in attempts to
evaluate the impact of thermal effluent
elimination.
FY 1999 $30,000
FY 2000 $65,000
E. Project Title and Summary:
Characterizing benthic habitat and
manatee grazing activity in Puerto Rico.
Our objective is to assess the long-term
ecological status of seagrass
resources in important manatee feeding
areas. Unlike the Florida manatee,
which utilizes primarily estuarine and
freshwater habitats and feeds on a wide
variety of submerged, floating, and
emergent plants, Antillean manatees
in Puerto Rico are found in marine
habitats and depend upon seagrasses for
food.
The study utilizes radio tracking to
reveal manatee movements and habitat
use patterns in eastern Puerto Rico, and
links them to detailed maps of benthic
habitat near the U.S. Naval Station
Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Field personnel monitoring the newly
tagged individuals have been trained
in VHF tracking techniques. Habitat
maps for U.S. Naval Station, Roosevelt
Roads (NAVSTA ROOS RDS), Puerto
Rico, and draft maps for Vieques Island
have been produced. Final reports for
the mapping effort are in preparation.
Copies will be provided to the Navy,
Puerto Rico Department of Natural
Resources (PRDNR), and other
interested cooperators. Annual reports
to the PRDNR and the U.S. Navy
describe the field methods, databases,
and preliminary results on movements
and spatial use patterns. The study has
documented individual variation in
13
movement patterns and areas of high
manatee use. Six study sites, four at
Roosevelt Roads Naval Station and two
on the west coast of Puerto Rico, near
Guanajibo, were assessed in April and
December 2000 to determine seagrass
distribution, abundance, standing crop,
and leaf productivity in manatee feeding
areas.
Publication completed: Lefebvre, L.W.,
J.P. Reid, W.J. Kenworthy, and J.A.
Powell. 2000. Characterizing manatee
habitat use and seagrass grazing in
Florida and Puerto Rico: implications for
conservation and management. Pacific
Conservation Biology 5(4):289-298.
FY 1999 $35,200
FY 2000 $35,200
FY 2001 $35,200
F. Project Title and Summary:
Postrelease monitoring of captive-reared
manatees.
The primary objective of the manatee
reintroduction program is to develop
protocols and guidelines for releasing
long-term captive manatees (captive born
and captive reared) into their natural
environment. The Sirenia Project
represents USGS/BRD in the
Interagency/Oceanaria Manatee Working
Group (I/O Group), which advises the
Service on issues related to captive
manatees. The I/O Group recommended
the use of a prerelease enclosure as
a means of conditioning long-term
captives before releasing them in the
wild. The Sirenia Project assisted FWS
in designing the enclosure; by developing
protocols to record observations of
manatees; and to assess changes in the
aquatic vegetation within the enclosure,
radio tracking manatees released
from the enclosure, and assisting with
postrelease captures and biomedical
assessments of reintroduced manatees.
Additionally, the Sirenia Project
conducted concurrent satellite
transmitter accuracy tests while
radio tagged manatees were held in
the enclosure. Since 1995, a number
of manatee releases have been done
directly, in south Florida at Everglades
National Park and Biscayne Bay, without
prerelease conditioning. Prior to release,
each manatee is fitted with a floating,
tethered radio tag that is attached to a
belt harness around the peduncle. The
satellite-monitored PTTs also incorporate
a VHF and sonic transmitter to permit
tracking in the field. PTT locations
are provided by Service Argos, which
operates a data collection and location
system.
Since April 1993, 17 captive reared and
captive born manatees have been
released with satellite-monitored radio
tags at eight different locations in
Florida. The study has documented
individual variation in survivability
through winters, seasonal movement
patterns, areas of high manatee use,
strong site fidelity to warm-season
ranges across years , and diel movement
patterns. Data on blood chemistry,
hematology, and body condition have
been collected both prerelease and
postrelease for most of the manatees
studied.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Four captive-reared and one
rehabilitated manatee were released
in the spring run last winter and radio
tracked during 2000. The manatees were
fitted with satellite-monitored, floating
tag assemblies and belt-mounted VHF
radio transmitters. Three manatees had
gained weight since their release and
one was approximately the same weight.
All were determined to be healthy, with
blubber indices within the range of
healthy wild manatees.
Publication completed: Deutsch, C.J.
2000. Winter movements and use of
warm-water refugia by radio tagged
West Indian manatees along the Atlantic
Coast of the United States. Final
Report prepared for Florida Power and
Light Company and U.S. Geological
Survey. 74pp. + append.
Publication completed: Deutsch, C.J.,
J.P. Reid, R.K. Bonde, D.E. Easton,
H.I. Kochman, and T.J. O’Shea. 2000.
Seasonal movements, migratory
behavior, and site fidelity of West Indian
manatees along the Atlantic Coast of
the United States as determined by
radiotelemetry. Final Report. Research
Work Order 163. Florida Cooperative
Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, U.S.
Geological Survey and University of
Florida. 254pp. + xii.
Publication completed: Carr, T. and R.K.
Bonde. 2000. Tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatilis)
occurs in Nicaragua, 800 km north of
its previously known range. Marine
Mammal Science 16(2):447-452.
Publication completed: Eros, C.,
R.K. Bonde, T.J. O’Shea, C. Beck, H.
Marsh, C. Recchia, and K. Dobbs.
2000. Procedures for the Salvage and
Necropsy of the Dugong (Dugong
dugon). GBRMPA Technical Report,
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority. Research Publication No. 64.
74 pp.
FY 1999 $65,000
FY 2000 $65,000
FY 2110 $64,600
G. Project Title and Summary:
Manatee population genetics.
The West Indian manatee includes two
recognized subspecies, the Florida and
the Antillean manatee. The Florida
manatee is believed to occur almost
exclusively in Florida and neighboring
states in the southeastern United
States. The Antillean manatee is much
more widely distributed, in the Greater
Antilles, Mexico, the Caribbean coasts
of Central and South America, and
the Atlantic coast of Brazil to the state
of Bahía. Intensive research efforts
over the last 30 years have illuminated
aspects of manatee ecology, ethology,
and population dynamics.
Research on manatee genetics is
mandated by the Service���s Florida
Manatee Recovery Plan. Such
information could improve
understanding of the structure and
social interactions of populations
and thereby influence management
objectives for different groups of
manatees. Ongoing habitat loss and
high mortality rates are factors which
threaten the future of the Florida
manatee. Low intrinsic reproductive rate
and low natural population density make
this species particularly vulnerable to
human perturbations. One consequence
of population reduction is loss of genetic
diversity. It is generally recognized that
genetic variability is necessary for both
adaptation to changing environments
and long-term survival of the species.
Strategies to preserve genetic diversity
require knowledge of the distribution of
variation in the populations and species.
Several generations of severe inbreeding
in a small population or repeated crashes
to a few individuals can deplete most of
the genetic variation from an initially
larger population.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
A 403 base-pair fragment was examined
in 87 individuals from Florida, Puerto
Rico, the Dominican Republic, Mexico,
Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and
Brazil, and fifteen haplotypes were
identified. Three distinctive mtDNA
lineages were observed in T. manatus,
corresponding approximately to Florida
and the West Indies, the Caribbean
coast and rivers of South America,
and the Atlantic coast and rivers of
South America. The three T. manatus
lineages may represent relatively old
biogeographic partitions, based on the
manatees strong affinity for extensive
freshwater habitats in South America,
and periodic extinctions of the Florida
manatee at the northern end of the
species’ range during the Pleistocene.
14
Angela Garcia completed her
dissertation, “Genetic Studies of the
West Indian Manatee,” in April 2000.
Eight polymorphic DNA microsatellite
loci were identified for use in population
analysis. Tissue samples from 223
manatees were analyzed, approximately
45 from each of 5 regions of Florida.
There is significant genetic
differentiation between manatees on
the east and west coasts; however, no
significant differentiation was detected
between groups within coasts. The low
level of alleles detected for the 8 loci (23
total) indicates a possible bottleneck
or founder effect, followed by breeding
among related individuals. The Florida
manatee population can be considered a
single evolutionary unit, which consists
of two well-defined management units on
the east and west coasts.
Dissertation completed in 2000: Garcia-
Rodriguez, A.I. 2000. Genetic studies of
the West Indian manatee (Trichechus
manatus). Ph.D. thesis. University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL. 115 pp.
FY 1999 $15,000
FY 2000 $15,000
FY 2001 $43,000
H. Project Title and Summary:
Evaluation of releases of captive-born
and captive-reared manatees.
The primary objective of the manatee
reintroduction program is to develop
protocols and guidelines for releasing
long-term captive manatees (captive-born
and captive-reared) into their
natural environment. The Sirenia
Project represents USGS/BRD in the
Interagency/Oceanaria Manatee
Working Group (I/O Group), which
advises the Service on issues related
to captive manatees. The I/O Group
recommended the use of a prerelease
enclosure as a means of conditioning
long-term captives before releasing them
in the wild. The Sirenia Project assisted
the Service in designing the enclosure,
and by developing protocols to record
observations of manatees and to assess
changes in the aquatic vegetation within
the enclosure, radio tracking manatees
released from the enclosure, and
assisting with postrelease captures and
biomedical assessments of reintroduced
manatees.
Additionally, the Sirenia Project
conducted concurrent satellite
transmitter accuracy tests while
radiotagged manatees were held in
the enclosure. Since 1995, a number
of manatee releases have been done
directly, without prerelease conditioning,
in south Florida (Everglades National
Park and Biscayne Bay). Prior to
release, each manatee is fitted with
a floating, tethered radio tag that is
attached to a belt harness around the
peduncle. The satellite-monitored
PTTs also incorporate a VHF and sonic
transmitter to permit tracking in the
field. PTT locations are provided by
Service Argos, which operates a data
collection and location system. Visual
observations of manatee activity,
particularly feeding and socializing,
provide information on the individual’s
transition to natural habitats.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
The 1996 Florida Manatee Recovery
Plan mandates the development of
protocols and guidelines for captive
manatee reintroduction, and for
evaluation of reintroduction success.
This study provides information critical
to the development of sound protocols.
Data on manatee survival, movement
patterns, food habits, loss of human-friendly
behavior, habitat requirements,
blood chemistry, and fat metabolism
will allow development of protocols and
guidelines that can be used by Federal
and State managers and veterinarians
to establish policies for future manatee
releases.
These guidelines and protocols will also
be generally useful to periodically assess
the condition of wild manatees in other
studies, e.g., before and after habitat
changes have been imposed.
Manatees rooting in sand
Jim P. Reid/USFWS
I. Project Title and Summary:
Determination and quantification of the
diet of Florida manatees in high-use
habitats.
The Florida manatee is a herbivorous
marine mammal that feeds on a wide
variety of marine and freshwater
plantsand algae. Manatees occupy a
wide variety of estuarine and freshwater
habitats in Florida and Georgia.
Determination of the manatee diet is a
primary responsibility under the Florida
Manatee Recovery Plan. Analysis of
diet can supplement field observations
that help to identify important areas
of habitat requiring protection and the
relative importance and extent to which
manatees utilize available resources.
The objectives of this research project
are: (1) to identify and quantify the
relative amount of plant material
(seagrasses, algae, freshwater aquatics)
by species, and rhizome content,
consumed by manatees, through
analyses of stomach content samples
from salvaged carcasses; and (2) to
determine if dietary differences exist
among sexes, size classes (relative
age), seasons, or specific locations with
a general estuarine or freshwater
habitat. Techniques for quantifying
diet from gastrointestinal tract
contents were developed for terrestrial
food plants. A hybrid technique was
developed for manatee dietary analysis
that incorporated components of a
microhistological technique and a
microscope point technique. This
hybrid technique and a protocol for
ingesta identification will be utilized
in this study, along with a catalog of
photomicrographs and a diagnostic key
to histological features discernable in
masticated material.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Information on habitat requirements
of Florida manatees is needed by
Federal and State managers responsible
for protecting and recovering this
endangered marine mammal. The
Florida Manatee Recovery Plan
(USFWS 1996) identifies food habits
studies as necessary for full recovery
of the species. Data obtained will be
available to all clients to assist with
manatee habitat assessment and
utilization. The procedures and results
also may be useful to researchers
involved in diet studies of manatees in
other parts of their range.
Some of the laboratory work for this
ongoing study has been completed.
Analyses have been completed on 40
stomach samples from Lee County, 104
from Brevard County, 25 from
northeastern Florida and Georgia, and
8 from Puerto Rico. In addition, 50
samples from southwest Florida have
been preliminarily analyzed. Hundreds
of additional samples from salvaged
carcasses are available and will be
prioritized for analysis by site and
interest from clients. Fecal samples
collected from radio tagged manatees
are examined on a regular, ongoing basis
to assess the food habits of specific,
known individuals.
15
FY 1999 $17,000
FY 2000 $17,000
J. Project Title and Summary:
Seagrass ecology in selected manatee
feeding areas
The West Indian manatee is one of few
species that graze on living seagrasses,
which are an important part of the
Florida manatee’s diet. Manatees and
seagrass have undoubtedly coevolved.
We must understand the relationship
between seagrass ecology and manatee
behavior in order to assure the survival
of both resources, which have been and
continue to be adversely impacted by
humans.
Critically important feeding sites must
be characterized to assure that manatee
carrying capacity does not decline as a
result of changes in manatee population
size or distribution, human impacts, or
natural phenomena such as sea level rise.
Seasonal fluctuations in seagrass species,
biomass, leaf rhizome ratio, and nutrients
may have important consequences for
the nutritional status and life history of
the manatee, as has been suggested for
dugongs and sea turtles.
1999 Activities/Accomplishments
The results of this research, which
concluded in 1999, will help biologists to
assess impacts and estimate manatee
carrying capacity of repeatedly grazed
seagrass beds in areas of special
significance to manatee conservation.
It will also help to document and
elucidate the role of manatee grazing in
maintaining seagrass species diversity.
Increased awareness of the importance
of seagrasses to the future survival of
the manatee should also increase public
appreciation of the greatly
underestimated value of seagrasses in
marine and estuarine ecosystems.
We postulate that, in the absence of
manatee grazing, H. wrightii is shaded
out by the taller, more robust S. filiforme.
Manatee grazing may help to maintain
mixed-species seagrass beds.
FY 1999 $30,000
FY 2000 $37,000
K. Project Title and Summary:
Development of an adaptive management
model to address the problem of manatee
reliance on industrial warm water
discharges.
Project is to develop population model(s),
estimate parameters for model(s), and
use model(s) in an adaptive management
approach to manage manatees. Research
results will be used to make
recommendations about manatee
management with respect to such
management actions as boat speed
restrictions and power plant closing
sequences.
Adaptive management seems to be an
excellent tool for assessing and reducing
the influence of industrial warm-water
effluents, particularly power-generating
plants, on manatee population dynamics.
We are collaborating to develop
several alternative models of manatee
response to changes in power plant
operations, based primarily on manatee
photo identification and radio tracking
studies conducted by our research
team. Removal of thermal effluents
can be viewed as a restoration action,
but the short and long-term impacts
on manatees are uncertain. We plan to
work with plant industry personnel to
design and test management strategies
in an iterative process that, over time,
optimizes the biological information
obtained and improves management
actions.
2000 Activities/Accomplishments
A basic model has been developed and
estimation methodology for reproductive
parameters has been developed. We are
awaiting data to estimate parameters
and will then implement modeling.
FY 2000 $0
L. Project Title and Summary:
Impacts of Hydrological Restoration
on Three Estuarine Communities of
the Southwest Florida Coasts and
Associated Animal Inhabitants.
This 5-year study was initiated in
FY 2000, as part of an integrated
Center project to assess the impacts of
hydrological restoration on estuarine
communities of Southwest Florida.
Given the manatee’s reliance on
freshwater and aquatic vegetation,
we hypothesize that altered water
management regimes will affect
manatee distribution, relative
abundance, habitat use, and movement
patterns. We are also studying the
distribution and relative abundance
of manatees through the use of aerial
strip-transect surveys, and the status of
submerged aquatic vegetation in the Ten
Thousand Islands region.
2000 Activities/Accomplishments
In June 2000, we initiated research
on manatee movements through the
use of radio telemetry and a data-logging
Global Positioning System tag.
Temperature, availability of fresh water,
and spatial distribution of submerged
aquatic vegetation, particularly
seagrasses, are probably the most
important factors influencing manatee
movement patterns along the southwest
coast.
Mignucci-Giannoni, A.A., R.A.
Montoya-Ospina, N.M. Jiménez-
Marrero, M.A. Rodríguez-López, E.H.
Williams, Jr., and R.K. Bonde. 2000.
Manatee Mortality in Puerto Rico.
Environmental Management 25(2):189-
198.
Reid, J. P. 2000. Florida manatee now
resident in the Bahamas. pp.7-8 in
Sirenews.
FY 2000 $35,200
6. Southern sea otter
A. Project Title and Summary:
Population biology and behavior of sea
otters.
The California sea otter population is
presently listed as a threatened
population under the ESA and depleted
under the Act. While many northern
populations have recovered to high
levels or currently are growing rapidly,
the California sea otter population
has managed only a modest growth
rate throughout most of this century
and at present appears to be stable
or declining. Furthermore, sea otter
populations in western Alaska are in
catastrophic decline, having reached
densities of about one-tenth what they
were in the early 1990s. The cause of
the California sea otter’s continued
sluggish growth rate and more recent
stasis are uncertain. The rapid decline
rate of western Alaska populations
appears to be a consequence of recent
predation by killer whales.
A new study plan has been developed to
focus more science relative to the
demography of California sea otters
due to recent population declines. The
proposed work has two interrelated
main objectives: (1) to monitor trends
in the distribution and abundance
of California sea otters; and (2) to
determine the cause or causes for the
current decline in population abundance.
This study has three broad goals: (1) to
track sea otter population trends; (2) to
determine the causes (demographically
and environmentally) of trend changes;
and (3) to develop standards
(physiological, behavioral, and
demographic) for assessing the status of
populations. The purpose of the study is
to document a broad suite of behavioral
and life history characteristics in a
population known to be below carrying
capacity and currently growing at near
the species’ maximum rate. These
studies are needed to understand how
16
behavior and life history varies with
population status, and to help evaluate
the status of other populations,
particularly the threatened southern
sea otter population in California. The
maximum rate of increase of sea otter
populations is 17-20 percent yr-1. The
sea otter population in Washington State
has increased near this rate. In contrast,
the sea otter population in central
California has increased at an overall
rate of about 4-5 percent yr-1.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
1. The study plan has been approved
after extensive peer, relevance, and
animal care and use review.
2. Continuing sea otter abundance
and distribution surveys have been
completed.
3. Sea otter captures for implanting
radio tracking devices and time-depth
recorders will begin soon.
This research project will provide
new and significant information on
the natural history, behavior, and
demography of sea otters. This
information will be useful in developing
conservation and management plans for
the species throughout its range.
Research in California has shown
that the growth rate of the sea otter
population in central California recently
has leveled off or begun to decline. The
overall sluggish rate of growth and this
more recent change are the result of
changes in mortality, not reproduction or
redistribution. Consistent with elevated
mortality, the number of beach-cast
carcasses has increased somewhat
in recent years. Infectious disease
and trauma appear to be the main
contributors to this elevated mortality
rate although there is no evidence that
the incidence of infectious disease-related
mortality has increased with the
most recent population changes.
Studies in western Alaska have shown
that the precipitous population declines
are continuing unabated, are widespread
over thousands of kilometers of
shoreline, and are not due to infectious
disease, toxicity, or starvation. Predation
by killer whales has been found to be
the likely cause of the declines. In
Washington State, 79 sea otters have
been captured so far during the study,
44 independent females, 16 independent
males and 19 pups. Of these, 32
independent females, 15 independent
males, and 9 pups were implanted with
radio transmitters.
FY 1999 $150,000
FY 2000 $198,000
FY 2001 $609,000
B. Project Title and Summary:
Causes of southern sea otter mortality.
The southern sea otter received
protection as a threatened species
under the ESA in 1977. After its near
extirpation in the late 19th century, the
southern sea otter slowly expanded
in numbers and range from a nucleus
of animals at Big Sur, California, to
currently range along approximately
200 miles of the central California
coast. However, the growth rate of
the southern sea otter population has
been consistently lower (at 5 percent)
than expanding northern sea otter
populations (at 17-20 percent). In
1994, the growth rate in California was
reduced to 0 percent and by 1998 a
serious decline in population count was
occurring, raising biologists’ concerns
that the population’s recovery was in
serious jeopardy.
A major factor limiting the population’s
growth appears to be an unusually
high rate of mortality affecting both
preweaning juveniles and adults. Prior
to 1992, beach-cast carcasses were
systematically collected and recorded
but the causes were unknown for more
than 50 percent of these deaths. The
specific objective of this project is to
document the causes of death in all
southern sea otters found freshly dead
along the California coast for a 5-year
period, and thereafter to provide a
continued lower level of monitoring
for trends in the causes of death. The
purpose of this project is to identify
both overt and underlying factors
detrimental to southern sea otter health;
this information will be used as guidance
for management strategies to reduce
mortality, enhance the population’s
status, and facilitate recovery.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Five-year documentation of the causes of
mortality in all freshly dead southern sea
otters was completed in 1996. We found
that California sea otters had an
unexpectedly high rate of mortality from
infectious diseases, and died from an
unusually wide variety of infectious
diseases. Forty percent of the otters we
examined died from infectious diseases,
13 percent had miscellaneous conditions
such as neoplasia or gastrointestinal
obstructions, and in 19 percent, no cause
of death could be determined. From
1997 through 1999, we continued to
monitor causes of mortality at a reduced
rate (every 4th freshly dead otter), and
found that the proportionate causes of
mortality had not changed substantially
from observations in 1996.
We determined from a review of the
literature and examination of archived
tissues, as well as necropsy and
parasitologic examination of recent
carcasses, that gastrointestinal
infections by the deleterious
acanthocephalan parasite, Polymorphus
sp., have increased in prevalence and
severity over the past 20 years. From
examination of two invertebrate
species that are sea otter prey, we
determined that both Emerita analoga
and Blepharipoda occidentalis harbor
intermediate forms of the parasite,
Polymorphus sp., but the parasite was
more prevalent and more numerous in
Emerita. We had toxicologic analyses
done on tissues from a small number of
the dead adult otters to investigate the
otters’ exposure to two classes of aquatic
contaminants with immunosuppressive
properties, butylins, and organochlorine
compounds, and found fairly high
concentrations of butylins and PCBs in
southern sea otter tissues in comparison
with other marine species. Our
toxicologic results indicate that southern
sea otters are being exposed to some
classes of immunosuppressive marine
contaminants; however, the sample sizes
analyzed to date are small and statistical
correlations with the causes of mortality
are inconclusive.
Article completed 4/28/1999: Thomas,
N.J., L.H. Creekmore, R.A. Cole, and
C.U. Meteyer. 1998. Emerging diseases
in southern sea otters. p. 613 In: M.J.
Mac, P.A. Opler, C.E. Puckett Haecker,
P.D. Doran, editors. Status and Trends
of the Nation’s Biological Resources. 2
vols. U.S. Department of the Interior,
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. 964
pp.
Presentation completed 4/9/1999:
Thomas, N.J. 1999. Oral Progress
Report to the Southern Sea Otter
Recovery Team on Southern Sea Otter
Necropsy Results and Environmental
Contaminant Residues in the Tissues of
Necropsied Otters, 1992-98. Southern
Sea Otter Recovery Team Meeting,
Monterey, CA, 8-10 April 1999.
Article completed 10/1/1999: Thomas,
N.J., and L.H. Creekmore. 1999.
Southern Sea Otter Health and
Mortality:
Questions Surrounding the Population
Decline. The Otter Raft, Friends of the
Sea Otter, Fall/Winter 1999 62:5-7.
Presentation completed 10/19/1999:
Thomas, N.J. 1999. Southern Sea Otter
Population Status/Possible Causes of the
Ongoing Decline: Disease and
Contaminants. Marine Mammal
Commission Annual Meeting, Seaside,
CA, 19-21 October 1999.
17
FY 1999 $0
FY 2000 $0
C. Project Title and Summary:
Population biology of the reintroduced
Washington sea otter population.
The purpose of the study is to document a
broad suite of behavioral and life history
characteristics in a population known to
be below carrying capacity and currently
growing at or near the species’
maximum rate. These studies are needed
to understand how behavior and life
history varies with population status,
and to help evaluate the status of other
populations, particularly the threatened
southern sea otter population in
California.
Efforts on sea otters along the
Washington coast have paralleled efforts
in California, providing a comparison in
the recovery of two separate and distinct
populations. The comparative study of
demography of the Washington sea otter
population is designed to identify critical
demographic processes that may account
for low population growth in California.
Monitoring and survey of Washington sea
otters has strong partnership support by
the Service and Washington Department
of Fish and Wildlife.
The maximum rate of increase of sea
otter populations is 17-20 percent per
year, and the sea otter population in
Washington State has increased at near
this rate. In contrast, the sea otter
population in central California has
increased at an overall rate of about 4-5
percent per year through 1994 but has
declined in recent years.
The comparative study of demography
of the Washington sea otter population is
designed to identify critical demographic
processes that may account for low
population growth in California.
A variety of hypotheses concerning how
population status influences diet, activity
patterns, time budgets, distribution,
movements, sexual segregation, agonistic
interactions, survival and reproduction,
and how these parameters vary among
individuals of different age and sex are
being examined. Radiotelemetry is used
to compare foraging, social behavior, and
demographic parameters among
Washington, California, and Amchitka
Island, Alaska, sea otter populations. The
Washington population is considered to be
well below its carrying capacity (K), the
Amchitka Island Population is thought
to have been at K for many years, and
the status of the California population is
uncertain. Radio transmitters, surgically
implanted, are being used to locate the
animals and measure the above listed
parameters among these populations.
Research projects in Alaska and
California have been completed or are
ongoing under separate permits. In
addition to the demographic study,
the project also includes monitoring of
population growth. This population is
the result of translocations of sea otters
from Alaska in 1969 and 1970 when a
total of 59 sea otters were released on
the outer coast of Washington State.
Distribution and abundance of this
population has been monitored by
project biologists since 1977.
1999 and 2000 Activities/
Accomplishments
Results of this research will be used for
comparison with results obtained from
other demographic studies of sea otter
populations from throughout the species’
range. Results of population surveys
are provided to stakeholders and will
provide insight into the dynamics of
population growth and range expansion
for populations reoccupying historic
habit from which they have been
extirpated.
Weights of sea otters in Washington
continue to be similar to those of otters
captured in recently reoccupied areas
in Alaska. Seven adult sea otters have
been recaptured once each during this
study, one male and six females. No
significant changes in weight were found
between the first and second capture.
The 1999
population survey resulted in a total
count of 605 sea otters. The population
has continued to grow at an annual rate
of about 11 percent since 1989.
1. Annual Washington sea otter
population survey and reporting.
2. Development of Study Plan for
“Environmental Contaminant Analysis
of Sea Otters and Prey from Coastal
Washington and the Washington
Maritime NWR Complex.”
Eleven sea otters were captured in 1998,
7 adult females, one adult male, and one
pup. Nine were implanted with radio
transmitters. The average adult female
in 1998 weighed 24.3 kg (SE 0.90), not
significantly different from the 1994,
1995, 1996, and 1997 averages of 24.9
(SE = 0.65), 22.9 (SE = 0.52),23.9 kg
(SE = 1.00), and 24.7 kg (SE = 1.17),
respectively. The average weight of all
adult females captured in Washington
is 24.0 kg (SE = 0.35). Weights of sea
otters in Washington continue to be
similar to those of otters captured in
recently reoccupied areas in Alaska.
A result not unexpected since the
translocation to Washington occurred
only 30 years ago, the population
remained at low levels for at least half
that time, and only recently reoccupied
much of the current range. Seven adult
sea otters have been recaptured once
each during this study, one male, and
six females. No significant changes in
weight were found between the first
and second capture. Over 762 hours
of activity data have been collected on
instrumented animals.
We now have reproductive data for 23
females captured through 1997, which
have produced 48 pups through 1998.
The natality rate for adult females in
Washington is 0.96-0.98, depending
on method of calculation. These rates
agree well with those from previously
published studies in California. The
1999 population survey resulted in
a total count of 605 sea otters. The
population has continued to grow at an
annual rate of about 11 percent since
1989.
FY 1999 $83,200
FY 2000 $92,000
FY 2001 $82,000
18
Enforcement
The Service’s Division of Law
Enforcement investigates known,
alleged, or potential violations of the
Act involving illegal take, importation,
or exportation of marine mammals or
their products for which the Service
has statutory responsibility. In addition,
the Division assists the NMFS by
making apprehensions and conducting
investigations in cases involving
marine mammals and endangered and
threatened species under that agency’s
jurisdiction. Results of these efforts
are referred to the NMFS for its
consideration and appropriate action.
However, under an NMFS/Service
Memorandum of Understanding, the
Service retains authority over those
investigations that involve endangered or
threatened species under the jurisdiction
of the Department. Violations are
referred to the Department’s Office
of the Solicitor for civil action or the
Department of Justice for criminal
enforcement action.
Enforcement Activities in 1999
In the Service’s Region 1, consisting of
the west coast, Hawaii, and Pacific trust
territories, Service wildlife inspectors
are stationed at five designated ports
and six border ports to closely monitor
wildlife entering the country to detect
the illegal importation of marine
mammals and marine mammal products.
Emphasis is placed on the designated
wildlife ports of Seattle, Portland, San
Francisco, Los Angeles, and Honolulu.
Special border ports on the Washington/
Idaho-Canada border, the California-
Mexico border, and at Agana, Guam,
continued to receive special attention.
In 1999, Region 1 wildlife inspectors
reported 32 incidents involving the illegal
importation of marine mammals. The
seizures involved products manufactured
from seal, dolphin, whale, and walrus.
Seventeen of the seizures involved Asian
medicinals labeled to contain seal.
Protection of southern sea otters along
the California coast remained a priority
for Service special agents. During 1999,
approximately 150 sea otters migrated
south of Point Conception, Santa
Barbara County, and remained in the
near-shore waters of the Santa Barbara
Channel from spring to early fall. The
presence of this large number of otters
in waters heavily used by the shell
fishing industry has increased conflicts.
Agents continued to work closely with
the California Department of Fish and
Game (CDFG) in conducting offshore
patrols to monitor the “live trap” fishery.
Several State violations were identified
during these patrols, resulting in the
seizure of more than 70 illegal traps.
Tentative findings from two Service-funded
sea otter studies indicate otters
can become caught in these traps.
Unfortunately, a limited number of
enforcement officers and the lack of
suitable vessels preclude
meaningful monitoring of the commercial
fisheries located in the sea otter range.
The NMFS is conducting an observer
program for incidental “take” of
porpoise in a northern Monterey Bay
gill net fishery. Observers for the study
documented the drowning of a sea otter
in their gill nets this year.
Two other sea otter deaths in Monterey
Bay were attributed to collisions with
boat propellers. The area where the
dead sea otters were found was Elk
Horn Slough near Moss Landing,
California. This is an area where many
sea otters have been observed in the
narrow slough. Boat activity in the
slough in excess of the 5-mph speed
limit has been documented. Increased
enforcement of the boat speed limit and
intermittent presence of Service agents
should help prevent otter deaths in this
area.
Two sea otters were found to have died
of gunshot wounds in California during
1999. One of the otters was found near
Half Moon Bay, and the other otter was
found at Pescadero State Beach, south of
Half Moon Bay. No suspects have been
identified.
Service agents participated in a
multiagency law enforcement task force
along the central coast of California
aimed at reducing human harassment
of elephant seals. Major haul-out
areas for these seals are becoming
tourist attractions. Harassment of the
seals and related State violations were
documented.
One noteworthy case investigated by
Service agents involved Lan Chile
Airlines, which transported eight live sea
lions from Uruguay to the United States.
Upon arrival at Los Angeles, Service
wildlife inspectors determined that five
of the sea lions were dead and three
were severely dehydrated. The Service
coordinated with the NMFS to
determine if NMFS requirements
had been met. The trainer, who
was traveling with the animals,
confirmed they were circus animals
valued at approximately $40,000. The
investigation revealed that the animals
were shipped from Uruguay to Chile,
and finally to Los Angeles. The shipping
containers, as well as the temperature
in the hold of the airplane, did not meet
the standards established by 50 CFR
Part 14 for humane shipping. The dead
animals were necropsied by the Los
Angeles County Museum, which found
the cause of death to be excessive heat
and dehydration. The three surviving
animals were temporarily held at the
Marine Mammal Care Center and were
later authorized reexportation (by the
NMFS) to the shipper in Uruguay. A
Violation Notice for inhumane shipping
was issued to Lan Chile Airlines.
Wildlife inspectors at the port of San
Francisco “tagged” 19 sport hunted
polar bear trophies imported from
Canada. Wildlife inspectors affix a
locking tag with a unique serial number
to the hide and permanently mark any
bear skulls included in the shipment.
The importation of sport hunted polar
bear trophies is legal, provided the
importation is authorized by a Canadian
CITES export permit and an import
permit from the Service’s Division of
Management Authority.
Investigation of a subject offering a
polar bear skin for sale in Washington
State led to the abandonment of the
hide, with no penalty assessed.
In the Service’s southeastern Region,
Region 4, which includes the State of
Florida, protecting the endangered
manatee population was a major focus of
enforcement efforts during 1999. Death
by boat strike has historically been a
significant cause of manatee mortality,
and boating is “big business” in
Florida. In 1996, there were 714,000
registered boats in Florida, and 60 out
of 416 manatee deaths (14 percent)
were attributed to boat strikes. In
1997, the percentage of boat-related
mortality rose to 22 percent (54 out of
246 deaths), while in 1998, boat-related
mortality increased to 27 percent (66
out of 243 deaths). The State of Florida
currently estimates that there are over
800,000 registered boats in the State;
when these vessels are combined with
transient craft, the total reaches a
million boats a year utilizing Florida
19
waters. In an effort to reduce manatee
mortality, the Service and the State of
Florida have established boating speed
zones in areas used by manatees where
boat strike deaths are frequent. To
secure compliance with the speed zones,
Service special agents organized and
coordinated manatee protection task
forces with the assistance of officers from
the USCG, Florida Marine Patrol (FMP),
National Wildlife Refuge System, and
Sheriffs’ Departments. In 1999, these
task forces apprehended 799 boaters for
speeding in manatee protection zones.
(Note: As of March 2000, 551 of these
cases have been adjudicated, collecting
fines totaling $55,220.) Additionally,
special agents processed 697 manatee
speed zone violation cases in Federal
court that were referred to the Service
for prosecution by the USCG.
In the Service’s Region 7, comprised
entirely of the State of Alaska, special
agents continued their aggressive,
proactive efforts to find a balance
between effective law enforcement
and the very real needs of subsistence
hunters in remote Alaskan villages.
Agents participated in meetings of
Native organizations, such as the Eskimo
Walrus Commission (EWC), and in
meetings in rural villages standing
shoulder to shoulder with local leaders
and subsistence hunters. These efforts
amount to a substantial and important
law enforcement effort that is not readily
measurable in cases made or arrest
statistics.
While encouraging compliance with
existing laws, agents are often faced
with the reality that existing regulations
do not adequately address situations
unique to Alaska. The Service in Alaska
continues to face challenges in enforcing
provisions of the Native exemption
under the Act in a number of areas,
such as Native handicrafts and tagging
requirements.
A task force operation in Alaska looked
at reported violations by marine mammal
registered agents and tanneries. Service
special agents inspected all 19 facilities
located in Alaska, finding violations at
nearly every location ranging from failure
to keep required records to illegal sale
of marine mammals. Several permittees
were cited with violation notices ranging
from $250 to $500, and agents are
following up on leads that were
developed. Additional charges are
expected.
In another case, Barrow police officers
discovered a raw polar bear hide at a
residence while serving a drug search
warrant. Service agents were called in to
investigate this possible violation of the
Act. Thus far, agents have been able to
determine that the hide was obtained as
part of a drug transaction; this
investigation continues.
In Anchorage, Service special agents
received a complaint that raw walrus
ivory was being offered for sale during a
street fair. A special agent made covert
contact with two individuals selling
handicrafts to tourists. When the
individuals offered to sell the agent
three raw walrus head mounts, the agent
identified himself, seized necessary
evidence, and presented the case to
the U.S. Attorney for prosecution.
Subsequently, one of the individuals,
who was the owner of the head mounts,
pleaded guilty, was fined $500, and
forfeited a head mount. The man’s adult
son was successfully prosecuted the year
before for selling a polar bear hide to a
Service undercover agent.
A Ketchikan gift shop owner was
investigated for selling polar bear fur to
tourists. He subsequently paid a $500
fine.
Enforcement Activities in 2000
During 2000, wildlife inspectors in
Region 1 identified and seized 37
shipments of marine mammal products
at the designated ports of entry, special
border ports, and Guam. The items
seized included whale bones collected
by tourists along the beaches of Mexico,
Asian medicinals containing walrus and
seal parts, whale meat and teeth, and
walrus carvings imported through the
international airports. A total of 18
polar bear trophies from Canada were
imported and cleared by Service wildlife
inspectors in Region 1 last year. The
absence of violations associated with
polar bear trophies may be, in part,
the result of Service outreach efforts
at the Safari Club International annual
convention, held each year in Nevada.
Service special agents and wildlife
inspectors, as well as personnel from
the Service’s Division of Management
Authority (the Office responsible for
issuing trophy import permits), staff
a booth at the convention and answer
numerous questions concerning the
requirements for importation of hunting
trophies, a significant number of which
are specific to polar bears.
In southern California, two sea otter
deaths from shooting were investigated
during 2000. The first sea otter shooting
occurred on April 15 just south of Morro
Bay, San Luis Obispo County, where
the animal was found freshly killed
(within 10 hours of death). Necropsy
was performed and the bullet fragments
were removed and sent to the
Clark R. Bavin National Fish and
Wildlife Forensics Laboratory
(Forensics Lab) for ballistics
examination. Several leads were
investigated by Service special agents
and CDFG officers, but no suspects have
been identified. The second sea otter
shooting occurred in Monterey Bay,
Monterey County, on September 20 with
the animal found dead on the beach. The
otter was X-rayed and necropsied, and
the bullet fragments were also sent to
the Forensics Lab. A reward has been
offered for the arrest and conviction of
the subjects who did the shooting. Thus
far, no leads have developed.
The conflicts between sea otters and the
shell-fish fishery in the Santa Barbara
Channel area, and the live trap and gill
net fisheries along California’s central
coast continue. Service special agents
participated in joint enforcement
patrols with the CDFG in these areas.
Particular emphasis was placed on
monitoring sea otters in the near-shore
waters south of Point Conception,
where the animals continued a seasonal
migration south from their main range.
This pattern of behavior places the
otters in direct conflict with the sea
urchin harvest and has been the subject
of a growing controversy between the
Service and commercial fishing interests
in southern California. The CDFG
closed the gill net fishery in the near-shore
waService special agents stationed
in
Washington State closed two
investigations that had been opened in
1999. One case involved the seizure and
abandonment of a polar bear rug valued
at $1,200, and the other case involved the
abandonment of one walrus oosik (i.e.,
penis bone).
Agents in that State also completed
two additional investigations. In the
first case special agents acted on a tip
received from a major airline after a
routine X-ray of passenger luggage
revealed a walrus skull and tusks.
The subject of the investigation had
purchased the walrus “head mount” ters
between Point Sal and Point Conception
in an effort to protect otters and marine
birds, which were drowning in the nets.
Service special agents have assisted in
several joint patrols in the closed area.
Service special agents also continued
to provide assistance to the NMFS
and the California Highway Patrol in
Monterey County by monitoring and
controlling large numbers of people who
visit a small stretch of beach to view a
major elephant seal “haul out” area. In
addition to harassment of the elephant
seals, the crowds create a major hazard
to traffic along a narrow section of the
coast highway.
20
Service special agents stationed in
Washington State closed two investiga-tions
that had been opened in 1999. One
case involved the seizure and aban-donment
of a polar bear rug valued at
$1,200, and the other case involved the
abandonment of one walrus oosik (i.e.,
penis bone).
Agents in that State also completed
two additional investigations. In the
first case special agents acted on a tip
received from a major airline after a
routine X-ray of passenger luggage
revealed a walrus skull and tusks.
The subject of the investigation had
purchased the walrus “head mount”
from an Alaska Native living in Dutch
Harbor, Alaska. The subject was offered
the opportunity to abandon the walrus
head mount to the Government, which
he subsequently did, and the case was
closed. In another case, a polar bear
hide was pawned at a pawn shop. An
investigation determined that the person
who pawned the hide received it from
a homeless person who exchanged
the hide for a place to stay. The hide
was subsequently abandoned to the
Government and has been donated to the
Idaho Fish and Game Department for
use in public outreach efforts.
Region 1 wildlife inspectors continue to
participate in a multiagency task force
designed to interdict the importation of
illegal drugs and other controlled
substances, which often include products
containing, or labeled to contain,
parts of marine mammals. Numerous
Federal, State, and local agencies with
various regulatory responsibilities plan
and conduct operations such as “walk
through” inspections of shops and
warehouses known to traffic in these
products, increased baggage inspection
of airlines flights with a history of
violations, and increased examination of
international mail, including the use of a
wildlife scent detection dog.
Protecting the endangered manatee
population continued to be a major
focus of law enforcement efforts during
2000 as boat strike manatee mortalities
showed no tendency to decline.
Coordinated efforts involving manatee
protection task forces continued to
enforce established boating speed zones
as a means to reduce manatee deaths.
During 2000, these task forces issued
1,538 Violation Notices (i.e., tickets)
to boaters for speeding in manatee
protection zones. (Note: As of March
2001, more than 1,100 of these cases had
been adjudicated, collecting fines totaling
$91,195. Additionally, special agents
processed 687 manatee speed zone
violation cases in Federal court that were
referred to the Service for prosecution
by the Coast Guard. As of March 2001,
the court has adjudicated 167 of these
cases, collecting $16,700 in fines).
In Alaska in 2000, special agents
continued their enforcement efforts
while considering the needs of
subsistence hunters in remote Alaskan
villages. Agents, in conjunction with
representatives of the EWC and Service
biologists, met on numerous occasions
with village leaders and subsistence
hunters to encourage compliance with
the regulations, especially wasteful take
provisions.
Agents in Alaska investigated a Kodiak
charter boat operator who, under the
guise of a marine mammal registered
agent permit, was killing sea otters
and seals from his 60-foot boat and
marketing them. This investigation
documented the unlawful take of over
100 animals between November 1999
and March 2000. A Federal grand jury
investigation is ongoing.
Wildlife inspectors for Alaska were
involved in ten cases at Anchorage’s
Import/Export Office during 2000. The
cases resulted in the seizure of walrus
ivory, seal pelts, and sperm whale teeth.
21
Permits and Registrations
The Act prohibits the take or import of
marine mammals and marine mammal
products. Exceptions may be made
under permits for scientific research,
public display, import of sport-hunted
trophies of polar bears taken in
Canada, photography for educational
or commercial purposes, or to enhance
the survival or recovery of a species or
stock. Another exception streamlines
the permitting process for conducting
scientific research by allowing a General
Authorization for activities that may
result in the take of marine mammals by
Level B harassment in the course of bona
fide scientific research.
The Act provides an exemption to the
take prohibitions for Alaska Natives for
subsistence purposes and to create
and sell Native handicrafts. In order
to enable marine mammal hides to be
tanned and to facilitate trade of products
among Alaska Natives, registered agent/
tannery permits may be issued to non-
Alaska Natives (i.e., persons other than
Alaskan Indians, Eskimos, or Aleuts).
Registered agents may purchase and
sell raw parts and tanned skins from and
to Alaska Natives or other registered
agents, provided that only authentic
Alaska Native handicrafts or clothing are
purchased or sold in interstate commerce.
Raw parts may be transferred (not
sold) to registered tanners for further
processing. Registered tanners may
transfer (not sell) parts received
for processing to Alaska Natives or
registered agents only.
Section 104 of the Act authorizes the
Director of the Service, acting on behalf
of the Secretary of the Interior, to issue
permits for the activities identified above.
Applicable provisions are found in Title
50 of the Code of Federal Regulations—
50 CFR 18.23(d) for registered agent/
tannery permits, 50 CFR 18.30 for sport-hunted
polar bear imports, and 50 CFR
18.31 for scientific research or public
display permits. Regulations will be
developed for a General Authorization for
activities that may result in the take of
marine mammals by Level B harassment
in the course of bona fide scientific
research and for issuance of permits for
enhancement of the survival or recovery
of a species or stock, photography for
educational or commercial purposes, and
beached or stranded marine mammals
that are designated as non-releasable
under the Act.
Permit Activities in 1999
During 1999, the Service finalized
regulations proposed in 1998, approving
two additional polar bear populations,
that allowed for the issuance of permits
under section 104(c)(5)(A) of the Act
to import personal sport-hunted polar
bear trophies taken in Canada. Also
during the year, four new permits for
scientific research were issued and four
were amended. In addition, 3 permits
were issued for public display, 1 permit
was issued for enhancement, 16 parties
either registered or renewed their
registration as agents and/or tanneries,
and 143 permits were issued for the
import of sport-hunted polar bear
trophies from Canada.
Scientific Research Permits
1. Permit 009526, issued December 16,
1999, through December 18, 2004, to
the NMFS, Marine Mammal Health and
Stranding Response Program; amended
NMFS Permit 932-1489 to include take
of all species of the Order Sirenia, and
walrus, polar bear, sea otter, and marine
otter for the purposes of scientific
research and enhancement. The
activities include: (1) collection, trans
port, import, and export of cadavers or
tissue and fluid samples for analysis; (2)
take of stranded or distressed animals;
and (3) salvage of specimens from dead
animals.
2. Permit 010249, issued June 28, 1999,
through June 25, 2004, to the Hubbs-
Sea World Research Institute to take
(harass) captive West Indian manatees
that are undergoing rehabilitation, for
scientific research to determine the
method of manatee entanglement in
(simulated) fishing gear and to devise
appropriate mitigation.
3. Permit 011638, issued September 3,
1999, through December 31, 2002, to
the USGS/BRD, amended the NMFS
Permit 930-1486 to include take of
southern sea otters during aerial
surveys for the purpose of scientific
research.
4. Permit 017419, newly issued October
21, 1999, and amended November
10, 1999, through November 9, 2000,
to Darlene Ketten, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution,
for scientific research of dugongs as part
of a study on how the structural ele
ments of marine mammal ears
contribute to underwater hearing. The
permit was amended to correct the
number of biological specimens
authorized for import from dead,
stranded individuals or collected from
aboriginal hunts in Australia.
5. Permit 717015, amended jointly with
the NMFS January 12, 1999, through
January 6, 2003, to the Natural History
Museum of Los Angeles County to
import, reimport, export, and reexport
salvaged material from dead Cetacea,
Pinnipedia, Sirenia, polar bear, sea otter,
and marine otter for the purposes of
scientific research and public display.
The permit was amended to include
endangered species authorization
inadvertently omitted at the time of last
renewal.
6. Permit 766818, amended April 19,
1999, through February 7, 2002, to the
USGS/BRD, for scientific research of
Alaska sea otters and southern sea
otters. The permit was amended to add
authorized personnel.
7. Permit 791721, amended December
15, 1999, through December 31, 2004,
to the U.S. Geological Survey, Sirenia
Project, to take West Indian manatees
for scientific research. The permit
was amended to increase the allowable
number of implants of passive integrated
transponder (PIT) tags and number of
animals for tail notching.
Public Display Permits
1. Permit 012337, issued September 10,
1999, through September 7, 2004, to the
Aquarium of the Americas to use sea
otter pelts (Enhydra lutris kenyoni), as
provided by the Service, in an education/
conservation program for public display.
2. Permit 838026, issued August 16,
1999, through August 15, 2000, to Ferris
State University to import a polar bear
from the Northwest Territories, Canada,
donated to the University for public